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STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  EURNITURE 


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STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE 


COUCHES  AND  BEDS  OE  THE  GREEKS 
ETRUSCANS  AND  ROMANS 


BY 

Caroline  L.  Ransom 

FELLOW  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


CHICAGO 

THE  UNlVERSri'Y  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
1905 


Copyright  igos,  h' 

The  University  of  Chicago 


January,  1905 


PREFACE 


This  book  was  begun  as  an  archeeological  study.  At  the  last,  however,  in  the 
hope  that  it  might  appeal  also  to  certain  lay  readers,  some  statements  have  been 
introduced  which  would  otherwise  be  superfluous.  The  task  has  been  a very  differ- 
ent one  from  that  undertaken  by  a person  writing  on  furniture  of  the  last  few 
hundred  years,  because  the  facts  have  had  to  be  gleaned  and  pieced  together  from 
comparatively  meager  sources.  The  nature  of  the  ancient  evidence  is  set  forth  in 
the  Introduction.  In  chap,  i is  given  a rapid  chronological  survey  of  the  forms  of 
Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  couches;  in  this  chapter  some  forms  rare  on  the 
monuments  are  noticed  which  have  had  to  be  ignored  later  because  of  lack  of 
further  evidence  in  regard  to  them.  All  statements  as  to  provenience,  dimen- 
sions, etc.,  of  the  material  published  in  the  plates,  and  longer  discussions  which 
would  have  interrupted  the  main  trend  of  the  general  chapters,  have  been  relegated 
to  a section  of  the  Supplementary  Matter,  “Discussion  of  Plates.” 

It  would  be  useless  to  try  to  enumerate  in  all  particulars  the  extent  and  nature 
of  my  indebtedness  to  previous  writers.  Some  acknowledgments  will  be  found 
in  the  footnotes,  as  well  as  references  to  some  of  the  earlier  results  which  it  has 
not  seemed  necessary  to  summarize  here.  I have  been  most  aided  by  the  following 
treatises:  Blumner,  Technologie  und  Termiuologie  der  Gewerbe  imd  Kiinstc  bei 
Griechen  und  Rbniern;  Mau,  in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Real-Encydopadie  der  dassischen 
Altertumswissenschaft,  article  Betten;  Girard,  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Didion- 
naire  des  aniiquitds  grecqiies  et  romaines,  article  I.ectus;  Graeven,  Antike  Schnit- 
zereien  aus  Elfenbein  wid  Knodien.  Many  references  to  passages  in  ancient 
authors  have  been  obtained  from  the  first  three  of  the  works  just  mentioned.  For 
still  other  references  I have  to  thank  Professor  F.  B.  Tar  bell.  Extensive  independ- 
ent foraging  in  ancient  literature  and  inscriptions,  and  the  discussion  of  purely 
philological  c|uestions  apropos  of  beds,  I must  leave  to  specialists  in  the  fields 
referred  to. 

This  study  would  never  have  been  attempted  but  for  the  material  gradually 
accumulated  in  visits  to  various  European  museums.  In  the  midst,  however,  of 
many  other  interests  during  student  life  abroad,  my  observations  along  this  line 
were  not  always  as  detailed  and  accurate  as  I could  now  wish  that  they  had  been. 
It  is  also  a matter  of  regret  that  the  collections  of  bronzes  in  the  Na})lcs  museum 
and  in  the  Palazzo  dei  Conservator!  in  Rome  were  inaccessil)le  during  my  stay  in 
Italy,  and  that  I was  unal)le  to  visit  the  museums  in  smaller  Italian  cities.  I was 
greatly  interested  in  provincial  museums  in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  and 


7 


8 


PREFACE 


was  impressed  by  the  amount  of  material  for  the  study  of  the  industrial  art  of  the 
Romans  which  is  thus  widely  scattered.  The  beautiful  damascened  rail  repro- 
duced in  Plate  XIX,  which  was  found  not  far  from  Lyons,  France,  is  an  illustration 
of  this.  1 also  hope  by  the  publication  of  objects  found  in  Egypt  (Plates  Vila  and 
XXIXa)  to  emphasize  another  fruitful  source  of  material  for  the  history  of  late 
Greek  and  Roman  industries.  Excavations  on  classic  sites  and  the  consideration 
of  the  monuments  gathered  in  the  great  national  collections  of  Europe  have  chiefly 
absorbed  the  energies  of  classical  archaeologists  uj)  to  this  time.  These  more  impor- 
tant activities  have  now  reached  a stage  where  greater  attention  may  profitably  be 
given  to  outlying  fields.  There  is  a vast  work  to  do — on  which  beginnings  here  and 
there  have  Ijeen  made — in  examining  the  finds  of  sites  removed  from  the  centers  of 
ancient  civilization.  It  should  be  determined,  as  far  as  possible,  how  many  of 
these  objects  were  importations  from  older  artistic  centers,  and  their  evidence 
should  be  added  to  better-known  material  for  the  study  of  the  various  minor  arts 
of  Greece  anrl  Rome.  In  the  case  of  local  products,  local  artistic  forms  should 
be  distinguished  from  those  showing  more  or  less  classic  influence. 

I cannot  speak  too  warmly  of  the  liberal  treatment  accorded  the  American 
student  abroad  both  in  museums  and  in  universities  in  the  dej^artments  in  which  I 
have  had  experience- -Egyptian  anvd  Classical  Archaeology.  Specific  acknowledg- 
ment of  hitherto  unpublished  material  which  I have  been  allowed  to  use  will  be 
made  on  the  pages  where  it  is  discussed.  INIy  indebtedness  to  Professor  Tarbell,  of 
the  University  of  Chicago,  is  very  great.  He  was  the  one  who,  several  years  ago, 
awakened  my  interest  in  the  furniture  of  the  Greeks.  Besides  the  service  mentioned 
on  the  preceding  page,  I owe  to  his  generous  help  many  stimulating  suggestions  and 
the  elimination  of  numerous  errors,  for  all  of  which  I wish  to  express  here  my  sin- 
cere gratitude.  I am  also  glad  to  add  a word  of  grateful  acknowledgment  to  the 
various  other  persons  who  by  their  kind  advice  and  encouragement  have  helped  me 
through  the  perplexities  attendant  upon  the  production  of  this  book. 

C.  E.  R. 

Chicago,  August,  1904. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

List  of  Abbreviations  . . . . . . . . . . ii 

Introduction.  Ancient  Sources  ........  13 

a)  Literary 
h)  Monumental 

Chapter  I.  Chronological  Survey  of  Forms  . . . . . .19 

Chapter  II.  Materials,  Technic,  and  Centers  of  Manufacture  ...  39 

Chapter  III.  Interlaced  Filling  of  Couch  Frames  ......  62 

Chapter  IV.  Furnishings — Mattresses,  Pillows,  Valances,  and  Draperies  . 66 

Chapter  V.  Style  ...........  72 

Supplementary  Matter — 

Section  i.  Discussion  of  Plates  ........  90 

Section  2.  Table  of  Greek  and  Latin  Terms  . . . . .109 

Section  3.  Bibliography  . . . . . . . . . 113 

Subjects  and  Sources  of  the  Text  Illustrations  . . . . .116 

General  Index  . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

Index  of  Passages  in  Ancient  Authors  Referred  to  in  Text  . . 125 

Index  of  Places 127 


9 


ik 


V. 


0 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


Amelung,  Fiihrer 
Am.  Journ.  Arch. 
Ann.  d.  I. 

Ant.  Denkm. 

Anz. 

Arch.  Zeit. 

A then.  Mitt. 

Baumeister 
Beschr.  der  Glypt. 

Blumncr,  Technologic 

B.  M.  Bronzes 


B.  M.  Terracottas 

B.  M.  Vases 
Brizio 

Buchholz 

Cat.  des  bronzes  ant. 

de  la  Bibl.  nat. 
Compte-rendn 

Elite  cer. 

Furtwangler-Reichhold 

Girard 

G jotbasch  i-  Trysa 
G racven 

I lartwig,  M eisterschalen 


Walther  Amelung,  Fiihrer  durch  die  Antiken  in  Florenz. 

The  American  Journal  oj  Arclueology. 

Annali  delP  Instituto  di  corris pondenza  archeologica. 

Antike  Denkmdler.  A publication  of  the  German  Archieological 
Institute. 

Archaologischer  Anzeiger.  Supplement  to  the  Jahrbuch  des 
kaiserlkh  deutschen  archiiologischen  Tnstituts. 

Archtiologische  Zeitnng. 

Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlkh  deutschen  archiiologischen  Tnstituts. 
Athenische  A bteilung. 

A.  Baumeister,  Denkmdler  des  klassischen  Altertums. 

Adolf  Furtwangler,  Beschreibung  der  Glyptothek  Kdnig  Ludwig's 
I.  zu  Munchen. 

Hugo  Bliimner,  Technologic  und  Terminologie  der  Gewerbe  und 
Kiinste  bei  Griechen  und  Rdmern. 

H.  B.  Walters,  Catalogue  oj  the  Bronzes,  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Etruscan,  in  the  Department  oj  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 
British  Museum. 

H.  B.  Walters,  Catalogue  oj  the  Terracottas  in  the  Department 
oj  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  British  Museum. 

Catalogue  oj  the  Greek  and  Etruscan  Fu^cs  in  the  British  Museum. 
Edoardo  Brizio,  in  Notizie  degli  scavi  di  antichita,  1902,  pp. 
445  ff.,  “Tombe  dell’  epoca  romana  (ad  umazione).” 
Buchholz,  Die  homerischen  Realien. 

Ernest  Babelon  and  A.  Blanchet,  Catalogue  des  bronzes  antiques 
de  la  Bibliotheque  nationale. 

Compte-rendu  de  la  commission  impadale  archeologique  de 
Sain  t-Petersbourg. 

Lenormant  and  Dc  Witte,  FJite  des  monuments  ca-aniographiques. 
Adolf  Furtwangler  and  K.  Reichhold,  Die  griechische  Fu.sc»- 
malerci.  Auswahl  hervorragender  Vasenbildcr. 

P.  Girard,  in  Darembcrg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquitcs 
grecques  et  romaincs,  article  IvCCtus. 

Otto  Bcnndorf  and  George  Niemann,  Das  11  croon  von  Gjdl- 
baschi-  Trysa. 

Hans  Graeven,  Antike  Schnitzcrcien  aus  Eljcnbein  und  Knochen. 
Paul  Harlwig,  Die  griechischen  Meisterschalen  der  Bliithezeit  des 
strcngen  roth pgitrigen  Stiles. 


12 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


Ilelbig,  Fiihrcr 
I.  a. 


Jahrb. 

J alircsh. 

J.  IF  S. 

Mail 

Man.  d.  I. 

Monuments  Plot 
Pasqui 

Pcrrot  and  Chipiez 

Potticr,  Cat.  des  vases 
ant. 

Rayct  and  Collignon, 
Cer.  gr. 

Rom.  Mitt. 

Schumacher 

Vases  ant.  du  Louvre 
Verz.  der  iigypt.  Altert.^ 
P^erlin 

Wien.  Vorlegebl. 


= Wolfgang  Helbig,  Fiihrer  ditrch  die  djjentlichen  Sammhmgen 
klassischcr  Altert timer  in  Rom. 

= Insert ptiones  Graecae.  The  corpora  of  Greek  inscriptions  issued 
by  the  Berlin  Academy  will  be  cited  according  to  the  system 
recently  introduced  by  Professor  von  Wilamowitz-Mocllendorff. 

= J ahrbiich  des  kaiserlicli  deutschen  archdologischcn  Instituts. 

= .laliresliejte  des  bstcrreichischen  archaologischen  Instituts. 

= The  Journal  oj  Hellenic  Studies. 

= August  Mail,  in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Real-Encyclopadie  der  clas- 
sischen  Altertumswissenschajt,  article  Bettcn. 

= Monumenti  inediti  pubblicati  dalT  Instituto  di  corrispondenza 
archeologica. 

= Fondation  Eugene  Piot.  Monuments  et  memoires. 

= A.  Pasqui,  in  Monumenti  anticlii  pubblicati  per  cura  deW  Acca- 
demia  dei  Lincei,  Vol.  I (1889),  article  “Di  un  antico  letto  di 
osso  scoperto  in  una  tomba  di  Norcia.” 

= Georges  Perrot  and  Charles  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Part  dans 
r anti  quite. 

= Edmond  Pottier,  Catalogue  des  vases  antiques  du  Musee  du 
Louvre. 

= Olivier  Rayet  and  Maximo  Collignon,  Uliistoire  de  la  ceramique 
grecque. 

= M itteilungen  des  kaiserlicli  deutschen  archdologisclien  Instituts. 
Rbmische  Abteilung. 

= Karl  Schumacher,  Besclircibung  der  Sammlung  antiker  Bronzen 
zu  Karlsruhe. 

= Edmond  Pottier,  Album  des  vases  antiques  du  Louvre. 

= Ausjuhrliches  Verzeichniss  der  agyptischen  Altertiimer  und 
Gi psabgussej  Berlin. 

= Wiener  Vorlegebl litter  jiir  archdologische  Ubungen. 


INTRODUCTION 


ANCIENT  SOURCES 

The  only  extensive  extant  attempt  on  the  part  of  an  ancient  author  to  impart 
information  in  regard  to  furniture  was  made  liy  the  Greek  lexicographer  Pollux, 
who  lived  in  the  second  century  A.  D.  In  his  subject  dictionary,  embracing  many 
phases  of  public  and  private  life,  is  a collection  of  words  and  c[uotations  from  earlier 
writers  apropos  of  beds  and  their  furnishings.'  These  follow  one  another  with 
few  explanations,  and  their  meanings  are  in  many  cases  obscure.  Explicit  and 
detailed  definitions  after  the  manner  of  a Century  Dictionary  did  not  enter  into 
Pollux’s  conception  of  his  task.  In  the  treatise  on  the  Latin  language  by  Varro 
(116-27  B.  C.),^  parts  of  which  are  preserved,  are  some  fantastic  ideas  about  the 
derivations  of  words  referring  to  beds.  Only  the  late  lexicographers — Isidorus 
(seventh  century  A.  D.),  Suidas  (tenth  century  A.  D.),  and  those  followed  by 
Stephanus — give  proper  definitions.  Their  opinions  are  often  helpful,  especially 
when  they  support  them  by  passages  from  earlier  authors;  otherwise  there  is  always 
the  possibility  that  usage  may  have  changed  since  classical  times. 

Aside  from  the  sections  pertaining  to  beds  in  the  works  just  named,  there  are 
numerous  incidental  references  in  ancient  literature,  which  are  mostly,  however, 
tantalizing  from  the  point  of  view  of  any  one  interested  in  this  class  of  antiejuities. 
For  instance,  the  dream  recounted  by  Cicero^  of  an  egg  suspended  from  the  cords  of 
a bedstead  does  not  leave  one  any  the  wiser  as  to  the  appearance  of  beds  or  the 
method  of  cording  them.  There  is  not  in  all  later  literature  another  so  detailed 
description  of  a bed  as  the  Homeric  one  of  the  bed  of  Odysseus;'/  yet  that  is  alto- 
gether indefinite  in  regard  to  design  and  technic.  Some  passages  such  as  that 
just  referred  to  give  information  about  the  materials  used  in  constructing  beds  or 
the  makes  of  beds  and  furnishings  which  were  famous  in  antiquity.  Otherwise, 
except  for  the  names  applied  to  beds  or  their  several  parts  or  furnishings,-^  the  liter- 
ary sources  yield  little. 

Even  this  is  more  than  literature  affords  for  some  other  branches  of  ancient 
industrial  art,  as  for  instance  the  potter’s;  but  the  want  of  full  literary  evidence  is 
felt  more  in  this  case  because  the  monumental  evidence  also  is  far  from  satisfactory. 

' Onomaslikon,  VI,  9 IT.,  and  X,  32  IT.  Pliilologists  liavc  yet  something  to  do  in  deterndn- 

^ see  Book  V,  35,  166-68.  with  gmatcr  exactitude  the  usage  of  these 

,,  words.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  useful  articles 

3 De  Div.,  ll,  1^4.  ^ , , , , 

as  those  ol  1 rolessor  Anderson  and  I rolessor  Man, 

‘'See  p.  39,  n.  i.  defiiung  julcrum,  may  be  followed  by  others  (see 

5 On  pp.  109  IT.  is  given  a table  of  terminology.  p-  ni,  n.  16). 


LITERARY 


MONUMENTAL 


13 


14 


ANCIENJ^  SOURCES 


Brie/  Summary  of 
Monumental 
Ei<ide)icc 

Original  Pieces 


Full-sized  Repro- 
ductions 


Smaller  Reproduc- 
tions in  the 
Round 


Reliefs,  Paintings 
on  Walls  and 
Vases 


Difficulties  in  Us- 
ing Monumental 
Evidence 


A student  of  Greek  vases  can  never  at  least  be  at  a loss  to  know  how  the  subjects  of 
his  researches  looked,  since  they  have  survived  in  vast  cjuantities  to  the  present  day, 
even  though  he  may  not  know  all  that  he  would  like  to  about  the  standing  of  pot- 
ters in  Athens  and  kindred  cpiestions.  But  in  the  investigation  of  ancient  beds,  as 
will  appear,  there  are  many  fundamental  problems  of  form  and  construction  to 
which  the  ancient  sources,  literary  and  monumental  taken  together,  do  not  furnish 
adecpiate  answers. 

A bronze  Etruscan  bed  exists  from  the  seventh  century  B.  C.'  Then  there  is  a 
long  break  until  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.  C.,  from  which  time  we  have 
parts  of  a single  bed.  There  is  another  bed  from  about  200  B.  C.,  possibly  the 
only  one  from  the  second  century.  Extant  beds  or  parts  of  beds  dating  from  the 
centuries  immediately  preceding  and  following  Christ’s  birth  are  numerous,  but  at 
some  time,  possibly  as  late  as  in  the  second  century  A.  D.,  the  series  breaks  off. 
Next  to  the  real  article,  which  is  abundant  only  for  a limited  period,  the  best  evi- 
dence in  regard  to  Greek  and  Roman  beds  is  derived  from  full-sized  reproductions 
in  marble  or  terra-cotta,  of  which  there  are  not  a few  ranging  in  date  from  the  sixth 
century  B.  C.  to  the  third  or  fourth  century  A.  D.  There  are  also  other  terra- 
cotta couches  of  varying  size  down  to  numerous  small  ones  under  40  cm.  in  length, 
which  last  are  chiefly  from  the  Hellenistic  period.  Otherwise  dependence  must 
be  placed  upon  relief  sculpture,  wall-paintings,  and  vase  decorations  in  which  beds 
appear.  The  reliefs  are  the  principal  source  of  information  in  regard  to  late 
Roman  beds  (second  century  and  later),  and  they  give  occasional  aid  throughout 
the  entire  time  under  consideration.  Etruscan  wall-paintings  of  the  sLxth  and  fifth 
centuries  B.  C.  show  couches  of  the  period  of  the  paintings.  Wall  decorations  of 
Roman  date  cannot  be  taken  as  evidence  for  contemporary  forms  (see  the  next 
paragraph).  Vase-paintings  are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  sixth  and  fifth 
centuries  B.  C. 

The  extant  original  l)cds  and  parts  of  beds  are  comparable,  so  far  as  they  go, 
to  the  material  at  the  (lis[)osal  of  one  studying  pottery.  Like  the  vases,  they  are 
often  incomplete  and  difficult  of  interpretation,  but  there  is  a greater  chance  of 
arriving  at  the  facts  with  the  objects  of  inquiry  actually  before  one.  As  soon  as 
recourse  is  had  to  ancient  reproductions  all  kinds  of  allowances  must  be  made. 
The  few  full-sized  reproductions  in  the  round  are  most  helpful  because  they  give 
the  details  and  proportions  of  a design  with  greater  accuracy.  Yet  even  here  there 
is  the  possibility  of  modifications  from  the  every-day  beds  which  were  the  models. 


I A few  fragmentary  remains  of  pieces  of  furni-  from  G.  and  A.  Korte,  Gordioti:  Ergehnisse  der 
ture — one  a bed — found  in  a tomb  of  the  seventh  Ausgrabiing  im  Jahre  igoo  {Jalirb.,  Ergdnzungshcjt 
century  15.  C.  are  mentioned  in  the  preliminary  V),  p.  49,  it  appears  that  the  remains  of  the  so- 
report  of  the  excavations  at  Gordion  in  Asia  Minor  called  n\ivr}  were  too  slight  to  be  of  any  value  for 
{Jahrb.,  Vol.  XVI  [1901],  A>iz.,  p.  8).  However,  this  study. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  USING  MONUMENTAL  EVIDENCE 


15 


due  to  the  medium  of  reproduction;  this  is  particularly  likely  in  a transference  of 
forms  into  stoned  For  the  same  reason  one  may  not  be  sure  always  what  the 
materials  were  in  the  structure  reproduced.  The  smaller  the  reproduction,  as  a 
rule,  the  less  one  gets  of  details.  The  small  terra-cotta  given  in  the  frontispiece  is  a 
happy  exception  to  this  rule;  if  we  possessed  even  one  such  for  each  century  covered 
in  this  dissertation,  there  would  be  fewer  doubtful  points.  Yet  all  reproductions 
in  the  round,  however  sketchy,  have  an  advantage  over  those  on  flat  surfaces  in 
giving  with  greater  probability  the  proportions  and  general  lines  of  a design.  In 
using  later  reliefs  and  wall-paintings,  those  which  are  copied  directly  from  earlier 
productions  or  are  more  or  less  eclectic  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  those 
(Roman  soldiers’  gravestones,  for  instance)  which  may  be  trusted  to  show  forms  of 
the  period  in  which  they  were  made.  With  regard  to  vase-paintings,  which  in  the 
number  of  the  representations  of  beds  which  they  furnish  are  far  in  excess  of  all 
other  classes  of  reproductions,  there  are  two  important  questions;  viz.,  how  far 
allowance  must  be  made  for  artistic  conventions,  and  how  far  the  relative  frequency 
with  which  certain  forms  appear  on  the  vases  is  a guide  to  the  relative  frequency 
of  their  actual  use.  Often  it  is  impossible  to  control  the  evidence  in  these  par- 
ticulars.^ 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  consider  how  these  beds,  both  the  originals  and  the 
various  antique  reproductions  with  which  we  have  to  deal,  stood  in  relation  to  the 
every-day  life  of  the  periods  which  they  represent.  The  Greek  and  Roman  bed  or 
couch  had  a double  importance  in  that  it  was  used  for  reclining  at  meals  as  well  as 
for  sleeping.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  there  was  any  differentiation  in  form 
in  accordance  with  difference  of  function  in  the  Greek  period.  Couches  for  both 
purposes  are  called  by  the  common  name  KKlvai,  and  probably  in  many  instances 
the  same  structure  was  used  both  for  dining  and  sleeping.  In  Italy  there  is  a dis- 
tinct name  for  the  sleeping-couch  as  distinguished  from  the  banquet  couch, ^ but  it 
is  probable  that  the  differences  were  minor  ones.-*  We  hear  in  Latin  literature  also 
of  couches  for  reading  and  writing.^  The  surviving  couches  and  parts  of  couches 


' Cf.  the  question  raised  on  p.  95. 

^ An  instance  of  a recognizal)le  artistic  convention 
is  seen  on  black-figured  vases  and  red-figured  vases 
of  the  severe  style  in  the  side-view  of  thrones  having 
rectangular,  incised  legs.  This  class  of  throne  is  fre- 
quent enough  in  reproductions  in  the  round  from 
the  Branchiche  statues  down  to  late  forms  such  as 
that  shown  in  the  tail[)iece  of  chap.  4 to  j)rove  that 
the  legs  presented  invariably  a broad  ornamented 
front  and  a narrow  unornamented  side.  Yet  on 
the  vases  in  f[uestion  the  most  ornate  and  advanta- 
geous view  of  the  legs  is  given  even  when  the  chair 


is  seen  from  the  side,  a front-view  of  the  legs  being 
thus  combined  with  a side-view  of  the  rest  of  the 
chair. 

3 The  first,  Icctiis  cubicidaris;  the  second,  Jectus 
Iridiniaris. 

■*  See  on  p.  33  the  statements  in  regard  to  head- 
rests and  foot-rests  on  slee])ing  and  banquet  couches. 

5 Leclicuhi  lucuhraloria,  Sukt.,  -1/fg.  yS;  M. 
Girard  (GtR.\Ri),  j).  1022)  calls  attentit>n  to  the 
fact  that  this  passage  proves  the  study-couch  to  be 
a piece  of  furniture  distinct  from  the  bed.  Professor 


i6 


ANCIEN7'  SOURCES 


of  late  Greek  and  Roman  date  served  probably  in  the  main  for  banqueting-/  there 
may  be  among  them  a few  which  were  used  for  sleeping.  Those  found  in  tombs 
may  or  may  not  have  seen  actual  non-funerary  use/  but,  like  the  marble  reproduc- 
tions in  tombs  and  the  terra-cotta  cinerary  urns  in  couch  form,  they  represent  either 
dining-couches  or  sleeping-couches,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  particular  tomb 
cult.-’  The  marble  couch  discussed  on  pp.  93  ff.  was  not  found  in  a tomb,  but  in 
the  ruins  of  the  Library  at  Pergamon.  Perhaps  it  was  placed  out  of  doors  or  in 
some  open  colonnade  and  was  used  by  priests  or  visitors;  or,  whatever  its  position, 
it  may  have  been  sacred  to  some  divinity. Most  of  the  small  terra-cotta  couches 
of  the  Hellenistic  period  and  later,  and  the  Roman  couches  known  in  reliefs,  are 
structures  which  seem  much  more  like  modern  couches  and  sofas  than  like  modern 
beds  (c/.  p.  38).  They  are  narrow,  piled  up  with  cushions,  and  usually  have 
people  seated  on  them  conversing,  or  lying  loosely  covered  upon  them.  So  far  as 
one  can  judge,  they  were  used  to  sleep  on  at  night  and  lounge  on  in  the  daytime;^ 
at  least,  we  have  no  representations,  among  these  terra-cottas  and  reliefs,  of  other 


Mail  (Mau,  col.  371)  thinks  that  diminutives  (Ov., 
Trist.,  I,  II,  37,  and  Plin.,  Ep.,  V,  5,  5)  point  to 
smaller  size  and  remarks  that  such  smaller  couches 
arc  frequent  on  the  monuments.  His  further  state- 
ment, “naturlich  musste  dieser  Icclus  due  Lchne 
(phiicus,  Pers.,  1, 106)  haheu,  die  auch  dicnen  komile, 
uni  darauf  zu  schrdhen,"  does  not  seem  to  me  to  be 
supported  by  the  monuments.  I cannot  name  any 
ancient  reproduction  showing  a reclining  person 
actually  in  the  act  of  reading  or  writing.  While  no 
couches  for  reading  or  writing  have  been  identified 
with  certainty,  it  seems  to  me  not  improbable,  as 
Professor  Vlau  suggests,  that  some  of  the  smaller 
Roman  couches  (f/.  on  jioint  of  length,  n.  5 and 
pp.  37,  38)  known  through  monumental  evidence 
may  have  been  used  for  these  purposes.  It  should 
be  noted,  however,  that  study  couches  were  not 
invariably  designated  by  the  diminutive  form;  cj. 
Pers.,  I,  52,  and  Sen.,  Ep.,  72,  2. 

' This  opinion  is  based  principally  on  the  circum- 
stances of  finding,  in  a few  cases,  and  the  Dionysiac 
character,  more  appropriate  to  a dining-couch  than 
to  a sleeping-couch  (see  pp.  85,  86),  of  much  of  the 
ornament. 

^ The  bone  couch  discussed  on  jip.  102  ff.  is  far 
too  weak  a piece  of  construction  actually  to  have 
been  used.  Such  beds  were  no  doubt  made  expressly 
to  serve  as  funerary  couches.  Cj.  Pasijui,  col.  241. 

3 See  Plate  I,  where  a recumbent  figure  in  his 


last  sleep  is  represented,  and  Fig.  14,  where  the 
person  is  sitting  up  holding  a drinking-vessel.  The 
representation  of  the  deceased  banqueting  is  far 
more  common.  Cj.  Altman,  Architcctur  und 
Ornamentik  dcr  autiken  Sarkophage,  pp.  34,  35. 

* Cj.  the  fourth-century  marble  reproduction  of  a 
couch  dedicated  to  Dione  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 
(the  inscription,  i^eXriov  kpxouoXoyiKov,  1890,  p.  145, 
3;  mentioned,  Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  oj  Greek 
SeuJplure,  p.  429,  n.  12),  and  the  representation  in 
stone  of  a couch  dedicated  to  Asclepius  at  Epidaurus 
{’ Epyjf^epls  ApxaioXoyiKrj,  1883,  col.  27,  3,  and  Furt- 
wangler, loc.  cit.).  Professor  Furtwangler  (!oc.  cit., 
]ip.  429,  430)  advances  some  interesting  opinions 
in  regard  to  the  ritual  use  of  real  couches  which 
were  dedicated  in  sanctuaries,  and  cites  the  dedica- 
tions at  Plataea  and  in  the  Parthenon  (mentioned 
here  with  references  to  ancient  sources  on  pp.  41 
and  54,  n.  3),  and  others  noted  by  Pausanias  (II, 
17,  3;  VIII,  47,  2;  X,  32,  12).  In  the  case,  however, 
of  the  couches  dedicated  to  Hera  at  Plataea  the  text 
does  not,  to  my  mind,  make  certain  that  these  couches 
were  placed  within  the  sanctuary  rather  than  in  the 
adjacent  inn. 

5 But  a few  couches  must  have  been  intended 
only  for  waking  use,  as  they  are  too  short  to  sleep  on 
in  comfort;  that  is,  if  the  reproductions  are  accurate 
in  the  relative  sizes  of  couches  and  occupants.  See 
further  on  this  point,  pp.  37,  38. 


EVIDENCE  OE  VASES 


17 


styles  of  beds  used  for  sleeping.  The  pictures  of  couches  on  vases  are  restricted  to 
certain  stock  scenes,  chiefly  of  banqueting  and  of  the  laying  out  of  the  dead.  The 
banqueting  scenes  in  the  red-flgured  period  are,  as  a rule,  pure  genre;  earlier  the 
participants  are  usually  mythological  characters.  The  later  red-figured  pottery 
shows  mythological  personages  seated  or  lounging  on  couches.  On  vases,  as  else- 
where, the  sleeping-couch  is  of  rare  or  doubtful  occurrence.' 

' C/.,  however,  Fig.  37,  from  the  death  scene  of  British  Museum  (mentioned  with  reference  p.  33, 
Adonis  and  the  surer  instance  on  a bronze  mirror,  n.  4),  too  rude,  however,  to  give  a fair  idea  of  a 
cited  in  n.  i on  p.  38;  also  a terra-cotta  in  the  good  bed. 


CHAPTER  I 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 

For  the  prehistoric  period  direct  monumental  evidence  fails  us.  We  can  infer  prehistoric 
that  a people  which  produced  such  works  of  art  as  have  been  found  in  the  palace 
at  Cnossus,  and  particularly  chairs  of  such  a developed  form  as  the  one  of  stone  in 
the  throne-room,  must  also  have  had  highly  ornate  bedsteads.  Among  Mycencean 
remains  there  is  evidence  for  a furniture  industry  (which  presumably  would  include 
also  beds)  in  various  terra-cotta  models  of  armchairs.^  The  Homeric  writings, 
while  making  clear  that  people  sat  in  chairs  to  eat,  and  frequently  slept  on  the 
ground,  yet  establish  beyond  doubt  that  beds  were  a common  household  article. 

Except  the  facts,  however,  that  some  had  turned  legs,  and  that,  while  some  were 
portable,  others  occupied  a fixed  position  in  the  house,  and  therefore  are  likely  to 
have  been  of  heavier  construction,^  we  get  no  hints  as  to  their  forms.  There  is 
absolutely  no  evidence  to  identify  any  of  the  forms  familiar  to  us  on  later  monu- 
ments as  survivals  from  the  prehistoric  age.^ 

Throughout  the  Greek  period  the  better-made  couches  fall  into  two  general  General 
classes,  those  with  legs  built  on  a rectangular  plan  and  those  with  turned  supports. 

(rpciTrefa)  und  die  Betten  macht,  sind  zu 

dlirftig,  als  dass  sie  sich  zu  erhaltenen  oder  auf 
Bildwerken  dargestellten  Exemplaren  in  Beziehung 
setzen  liessen.”  Buchholz  (pp.  155-57)  is  in  the 
realm  of  hypotliesis  when  he  attempts  a concrete, 
though  sketchy,  picture  of  the  S^/xi/ia  in  the  words  : 

“Sie  l)cstandcn  wold  aus  eincm  Comjdex  von 
holzernen  Brcttern,  welche  dcr  Lange  nach  iiber 
zwel  odor  mclirere  UntersLitze  oder  Tragbocke 
gelegt  wurden,  und  mit  dicsen  gleichsam  einen 
kleincn  Aufbau  (54fiu>)  bildeten,  welche  fiir  die 
Aufnahme  des  Bettwerkes  sowohl,  wic  auch  des 
Schllifers,  die  crfordliche  'Fragfaldgkeit  besass.” 


' In  the  Berlin  Antiquarlum  Is  such  a model. 
Inventory  No.  7812,  from  the  Lecuyer  Collection. 
See  also  Schliemann,  Tiryns,  Plate  XXIIIc. 
These  are  referred  to  in  Furtwangler,  Master- 
pieces 0}  Greek  Sculplure,  p.  429,  n.  9. 

^ This  statement  is  based  on  Buchholz,  Vol.  II, 
Part  II,  pp.  147  ff. 

3 Professor  Helrig  in  Das  homerische  Epos 
aus  den  Denkmdlern  erldulerP,  p.  124,  dismisses  fur- 
niture with  the  remark;  “Die  Andeutungen,  welche 
das  Epos  Uber  die  niedrigeren  Ichncnloscn  Sessel 
(ol0/5os),  die  Schemel  a-<pi\as),  die  'Pischc 


19 


20 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


(;reek 

Eighth  Century 


Attica 


Seventh  Century 
Attica 


Etruria 


Sixth  Century, 
first  halj 


Corinth 


In  the  Roman  period  turned  legs  arc  the  rule.  At  first  the  couches  were  a mere 
framework  of  legs  bearing  a fiat  surface  upon  which  bedding  was  piled.  Then  the 
u})per  part  gradually  assumed  importance;  low  hcadljoards  and  often  also  foot- 
boards appeared;  these  became  higher  in  Roman  times,  and  a back  was  added. 
It  is  possible  that  some  late  couches  were  upholstered. 

The  scanty  evidence  for  the  geometric  period 
shows  two  simple  patterns  of  legs  (Fig.  i,  and 
headpiece,  chap.  3),'  and  no  hcadljoard  or  foot- 
board. One  at  least  of  the  styles  of  bed-legs 
from  this  early  period  may  be  of  turned  work, 
the  prototype  of  a form  which  appears  on  fifth- 
century  vases. ^ 

ddic  seventh  century  is  nearly  a l^lank  to  us.^ 

No  doubt  the  types  just  noted  continued  in  use  in 
Attica,  if  they  were  not  more  widely  diffused.  The 
low  bronze  bed  with  five  heavy  round  legs,  slightly 
higher  than  the  frame  and — what  is  especially  notable — a low  head-rest,  which  was 
found  in  a tomb  in  ancient  Tarc|uinii,  and  is  now  in  the  Etruscan  museum  of  the 
\mtican,-^  is  attributed  to  the  seventh  century. 

Arriving  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  we  have  a fair  amount  of  mate- 
rial as  to  Corinthian  beds  on  the  large  craters  which  are  the  culmination  of  the 
potter’s  industry  in  that  city  at  the  close  of  its  long  early  era  of  prosperity.^  Both 
turned  and  rectangular  legs  abound.  The  turned  legs  are  not  of  the  simple  Attic 
design  seen  on  the  Dipylon  vases,  but  are  heavier  and  more  elaborate,  and  are  all 
of  the  one  pattern  given  in  Fig.  2.^  All  the  beds  are  draped  so  that  the  union  of 
legs  and  supported  portion  is  invisilde;  as  there  is  no  additional  height  at  the  head, 
it  is  improbable  that  they  had  head-rests.  The  rectangular  legs  vary  in  pattern  and 
are  of  great  importance  as  showing  the  earliest  examples,  still  in  an  undeveloped 
stage,  of  what  became  later  the  most  popular  and  widespread  design  for  elegant 


' Cj.  also  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr., 
p.  27,  Fig.  IQ. 

^ C/.  Fig.  I with  Fig.  28,  and  the  statement  on 
p.  23  with  that  on  p.  27.  The  reseml)lance  may 
perhaps  seem  to  the  passing  reader  very  slight.  It 
must  be  granted  that  the  Dipylon  drawings  are 
extremely  rude  material  upon  which  to  base  an 
identification,  yet  the  convex  curve  of  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  legs  is  clear  in  them  and  is  the 
distinctive  feature — one  which  docs  not  recur  in 
other  turned  patterns — of  the  si.xth-century  and 
hfth-century  furniture  leg  in  question. 


3 See  also  p.  14,  n.  i. 

4 B.aumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  326/;  = Girard, 

Figs.  4394,  4395  ctrusco  gregoriano,  Vol. 

I,  Plate  XV. 

5 PoTTiER,  Cat.  dcs  vases  ant.,  Part  II,  pp.  478  ff, 

^ Rayet  and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr.,  Plate  6 = 
De  Longperier,  Miisee  Napoleon  III,  Plates  XXII 
and  XXXIV  =Fuxex  ant.  du  Louvre,  Series  I,  Plate 
48,  E 635.  C/.  E 634  and  Plate  46,  E 630  and 

Plate  45,  E 623. 


SIXTH  CENTURY,  FIRST  HALF 


21 


chairs  and  couches.  They  are  at  this  time  clumsy  and  heavy,  if  the  vase  decora- 
tor’s drawing  is  to  be  trusted.  Two  characteristic  examples  are  given  in  Figs.  35' 
and  3.^  In  Fig.  35  the  contours  of  the  legs  are  unbroken,  but  there  is  an  orna- 
mental pattern  of  palmettes  occupying  the  full  field  afforded  by  each  leg;  again, 
the  top  of  the  bed  is  covered  by  drapery,  but  its  even  surface  is  an  indication  that 
there  is  no  headboard.  In  Fig.  3 the 
full  bed  shows  and  is  without  head- 
rest; two  large  rosettes  adorn  the  top 
of  the  legs,  and,  what  is  especially  sig- 
nificant, their  contours  are  interrupted 
toward  the  bottom  by  incisions ; slighter 
pieces  widening  in  the  middle  connect 
the  upper  part  with  the  equally  heavy 
foot;  what  seem  to  be  intended  for 
palmettes  occupy  the  space  between  the 
incisions  and  the  rosettes.  Fig.  4^  shows 
a further  stage  of  Figs.  35  and  3.  Pal- 
mettes appear  as  in  Fig.  35 ; the  full  bed- 
frame  is  exposed  as  in  Fig.  3,  with  the 

addition  of  a low  headboard  and  still  Fig.  2.— Heracles  reclining  upon  a dming-couchin  the  house 

. of  Eurytus.  Detail  from  a Corinthian  vase-painting. — Louvre. 

lower  footboard,  the  sides  of  which  are 

a continuance  of  the  legs  above  the  frame ; on  these  appear  for  the  first  time  volutes. 

This  bed  is  on  a hydria  of  more  advanced  form  and  decoration  than  the  various 

vases  on  which  occur  the  two  forms  just  described.  It 
seems  likely,  therefore,  that  it  is  of  later  date,  though  INI. 
Pettier  thinks  that  the  group  to  which  it  belongs  may 
ecpially  well  be  contemporaneous  with  the  less  advanced- 
looking  vases. 

These  early  turned  and  rectangular  types  seem  to  .utica 
have  been  known  also  in  Attica  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth 
century.  A Ijlack-figured  vase  from  Vourva  given  in  the 

riG.  3.  — Hanqucl-couch. 

Detail  from  a Corinllmn  vase-  Atkeil.  I////.,  Vol.  XV  (i8qo),  Plate  XII,  SllOWS  U foriU 

similar  to  that  of  the  Corinthian  bed  of  Fig.  2,  and  on 
an  unpublished  vase  of  the  Berlin  x^ntifiuarium.  No.  1755,  are  beds  with  incised 
legs,  as  yet  without  headboards  or  footboards  and  their  accomiianying  volutes. 

^ Cj.  Vases  ant.  du  Louvre,  Series  I,  Plate  46,  ^ I'i  643  of  the  Loin  re  Collection.  Cj. 

E 629,  and  Rom.  Mill.,  Vol.  II  (1887),  Plate  XI  anl.  du  Louvre,  Series  I,  Plate  51. 

XII,  4,  and  p.  259.  4 Pqxtiek,  Cat.  des  vases  anl.,  Part  II,  p.  484. 

‘Cf.  Wien.  VorlcgebL,  1889,  Plate  XI,  4=Mun.  d. 

/.,  Vol.  VI,  Plate  x'lV. 


22 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


Chaicis(?)  Toward  the  middle  of  the  century,  for  the  center  of  the  manufacture  of  Chal- 
cidian  vases — Chalcis  probably — there  is  evidence,  so  far  as  I have  found  published 
vases  of  that  class,  only  for  turned  legs.  The  Copenhagen  vase  (Baumeister, 
\'ol.  1,  Fig.  i()=Arch.  Zeit.,  1866,  Plate  206)  also  shows  a bed  similar  to  the  Corin- 
thian one  of  Fig.  2,  although,  as  might  be  expected,  the  legs  are  not  of  identical 
pattern  with  the  Corinthian  example. 

The  bed  on  the  “Phineus”  vase,  how- 
ever, has  new  elements  and  is  repro- 
duced here  in  Fig.  5.  For  the  first  time 
in  the  case  of  a bed  with  heavy  turned 
legs  the  frame  is  visible,  and  there  is 
a headboard,  but  no  footboard.  The 
legs  at  the  head  are  higher  than  the 
frame,  and  are  elaborately  turned 
above  where  they  form  the  supports 
of  the  head-rest. 

Sixth  Century,  The  bed  with  no  head-rest  and 
second  half  incised  legs  appears  on  two  Etrus- 

Etruria  Can  moiuiments,  which  on  grounds  of 
style  may  be  placed  early  in  the  second 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  The  first,  in  the  Archaeological  Museum  at  Florence  (No. 
213,  Amehmg,  Fiihrer,  p.  190),  is  a relief  which  has  under  the  bed  between  the, 

legs  a representation  of  mourning  women 
a curious  parallel  in  relief  sculpture  to 
the  imperfect  perspective  of  the  prothesis 
scene  as  depicted  on  Dipylon  vases.  The 
second  is  the  well-known  large  terra- 
cotta sarcophagus  of  the  British  Aluseum" 
on  which,  in  a relief  of  bancpieters  at  the 
back,  beds  appear  (tailpiece,  chap.  i). 

During  the  main  part  of  the  period 
now  under  consideration,  however,  and 
on  into  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
beds  of  either  turned  or  rectangular  legs, 
so  far  as  we  know  them,  had  low  head- 
Attica  boards.  The  normal  Attic  type  with  rectangular  legs  having  incisions  (Fig.  27)  is 
familiar  to  us  from  hundreds  of  black-figured  vase-paintings.  It  always  had  volutes 
at  the  head  and  never  at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  rosettes  or  stars  ornamenting  the  legs 
^ For  references  see  p.  76,  n.  2. 


Fig.  5. — Phineus  reclining  on  a ilining-coiich.  Detail  from 
a Chalcidian  vase-painting. — Wurzburg. 


Fig.  4. — 'Fhe  body  of  Achilles  lying  in  state.  Detail  from  a Cor- 
inthian vase-painting. — Louvre. 


SIXTH  CENTURY,  SECOND  HALF 


23 


near  the  top,  and  the  characteristic  incisions  (real  or  depicted)'  two-thirds  of  the 
way  to  the  ground,  with  palmette  ornaments  above  and  below  them.  The  long 
sides  of  the  bed  were  formed  by  connecting-pieces,  which  were  not  very  wide  and 
were  often  ornamented  by  rosettes  set  at  intervals  or  by  a mseander.  The  legs  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  bed  often,  but  not  invariably,  rose  higher  than  the  frame;  in 
those  cases  there  was — to  judge  from  the  position 
of  the  mattress — a footboard,  which  was  lower, 
however,  than  the  headboard.  The  beds  were 
almost  without  exception  very  high.^  This  is  the 
invariable  type  on  vases  of  the  developed  black- 
figured  style.  But  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that 
it  was  the  only  kind  of  bed  common  in  Attica  at 
this  time.  It  is  far  too  ornate  for  ordinary  use, 
and  this  very  characteristic  would  account  for  its 
popularity  with  the  masters  of  the  black-figured 
style,  who  were  fond  of  ornamental  details.  (C/. 

P-  25-) 

A type  of  turned  leg,  probably  recognizable 
on  Dipylon  vases  (p.  20),  is  seen  on  stools  in  reliefs^ 
of  this  period.  And,  as  it  reappears  on  the  monu- 
ments as  a bed-support  in  the  next  century,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  it  had  never 
since  its  introduction  gone  out  of  use  (see  further  on  this  point  on  p.  27).  Another 
turned  pattern  is  positively  vouched  for  in  some  terra-cotta  plaques  in  the  Acropolis 
museum  (Fig.  6),  where  a woman  is  seated  spinning,  not  “on  a long  bench,”  as 
the  publisher  of  the  plaques  describes  her,  but  on  a couch — and  probably  at  the 
head.'^  (C/.  Figs.  5,  7,  and  8.) 

In  Etruria,  the  bed  with  rectangular,  incised  legs  appears  in  the  form  of  Etruria 
large  terra-cotta  sarcophagi.  An  example  in  the  Museo  di  Papa  Giulio,  Rome,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  43.^  These  are  lower  for  their  length  than  Attic  beds  of  this  class. 
Another  Etruscan  representation  in  terra-cotta  of  such  a bed,  a small  cinerary  urn, 
which  is  published  by  M.  Heuzey  in  Recherches  sur  les  lits  antiques,  p.  192,  has 
the  high  proportions  usual  in  l^eds  as  [)icturcd  on  Attic  vases. 


Fig  6. — Woman  spinning,  seated  upon  a 
couch.  Fragment  of  a terra-cotta  plaque. — 
Athens. 


' 'I'he  question  a.s  to  tlie  actual  cutting  out  of  Tbe  upper  part  of  the  liead]X)st  is  restored  in 

the  legs  in  cases  such  as  the  t)ed  shown  in  Fig.  4 h'ig.  6,  hut  the  form  is  guaranteed  by  a preserved 
will  be  discussed  later,  p.  45,  n.  i.  fragment  of  another  plaque  from  the  same  mold. 

“ Among  the  few  exceptions  are  very  tow  beds  of  5 Cj.  the  Louvre  example,  ILvumeister,  Vol.  I, 
this  type  on  a black-figured  cylix  in  the  British  Fig.  549  =De  Longi>£k!Er,  Miiser  Napoleon  HI, 
Museum,  No.  B 679.  J’late  XXXV  = Mon.  d.  /.,  Vol.  VI,  Plate  1,1. 

3 E.  g.,  “Harpy  Monument.” 


24 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


Reliefs  on  cinerary  urns  show  very  commonly  beds  with  turned  legs  such  as 
that  given  in  Fig.  7'  on  an  urn  from  Chiusi  in  the  British  Museum.  The  same 
type  appears  also  in  wall-paintings  (Fig.  8)^  and  even  on  bucchero  vases. ^ These 
resemble  the  Chalcidian  bed  (Fig.  5),  with  this  ditference  that  the  legs  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  bed  rise  above  the  level  of  the  frame,  although  not  to  the  height  of  the 
legs  at  the  head,  and  may  have  supported  a 
low  footboard. 

Fijth  Century  The  stylcs  of  bccls  just  mentioned  })re- 
vailed  on  into  the  fifth  century;  indeed,  some 
of  the  examples  already  cited  may  possibly 
belong  to  the  earlier  years  of  the  fifth  century. 

An  Etruscan  mirror  (Gerhard,  Etruskische 
Spiegel,  Plate  CXXV)  and  a wall-painting  in 
Tarquinii  [Mon.  d.  /.,  Vol.  I,  Plate  XXXIl)  show  the  same  type  of  bed,  with  many 
turnings  on  the  headpost  above  the  frame,  which  we  noted  first  on  the  Chalcidian 
vase  (Fig.  5)  and  have  just  followed  in  later  instances  (Figs.  7 and  8),  and  shall 
encounter  again  in  Attica. 

An  Etruscan  cinerary  urn  of  the  early  fifth  century,  however,  (Plate  I)  presents 
a new  variety  of  the  class  with  incised  legs.  This  has  the  legs  at  head  and  foot 
alike  in  height  and  in  being  terminated  above  by  volutes;  instead  of  a slight  rail,  as 
in  all  previous  examples,  there  is  one  reaching  in  width  almost  to  the  incisions  and 
marked  off  by  various  moldings  into  two  panels,  the  upper  plain,  the  lower  occupied 
by  a relief,  in  the  middle  two  lions  attacking  a bull,  at  each  end  a recumbent  human 
figure. 

An  Etruscan  wall-painting  {Ant.  Denkin.,  II,  Plate  43),  belonging,  to  judge 
from  its  style,  to  the  same  period  as  the  Attic  severe  red-figured  vases,  has  rectangu- 
lar legs  sloping  toward  the  bottom,  such  as  are  found  in  Attica,  as  we  shall  see,  in  the 
same  period.  Both  the  legs  and  the  slender  rail  are  ornamented  with  a simple 
maeander. 

Attica  Red-figured  vases  afford  as  abundant  evidence  with  regard  to  fifth-century 
beds  in  Attica  as  do  black-figured  vases  for  the  sixth  century.  It  is  again  a question, 
however,  how  this  evidence  is  to  be  interpreted.  There  is  a decided  predominance 
of  very  plain  beds  in  these  vase-paintings.  A recent  writer**  concludes,  therefore, 
that  there  was  a radical  change  of  taste  early  in  the  fifth  century,  due  perhaps 
' There  is  a whole  series  of  archaic  Etruscan  Vol.  IX,  Plate  XIII,  from  the  tomb  dei  vasi  dipinti. 
limestone  urns  from  Chiusi  in  the  British  Museum  Cj.  Martha,  ibid.,  p.  430,  Fig.  285  =iIT)«.  d.  /., 
in  Cases  27,  34,  and  35  of  the  first  Etruscan  room,  Vol.  II,  Plate  II. 

on  which  are  beds  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  7.  Cj.  i Vases  ant.  du  Louvre,  Series  I,  Plate  26,  C 
Martha,  L’art  etrusque,  p.  279,  Fig.  187.  639. 

^ Marth.a,  ibid.,  p.  383,  Fig.  262=Mon.  d.  /.,  Girard,  p.  1017. 


Fig.  7. — Etruscan  couch.  Detail  from  the  relief- 
decoration  of  a limestone  cinerary  urn. — British 
Museum. 


FIFTH  CENTURY 


25 


to  Spartan  influence,  which  led  to  the  almost  complete  banishment  of  the  luxuri- 
ous couch  pictured  on  black-figured  vases  in  favor  of  very  plain  styles.  But  may 
there  not  be  another  explanation?  The  painters  of  the  early  red  figured  vases 
were  occupied  with  problems  of  drawing  and  technic,  and  cared  less  than  their 
story-telling  predecessors  for  mere  elaborate  details,  requiring  patience,  but  no 
new  skill.  Further,  they  were  interested  in  scenes  from  contemporary  life,  and 
every-day  personages  could  be  represented  on  every-day  beds,  whereas  for  the 
gods  and  heroes  of  the  black-figured  period  the  best  in  the  way  of  beds  which  fact 


Fig.  8. — Banqueting-sceiie.  Detail  frum  a wall-painting  in  an  Etruscan  tomb. — Conieto-Tarquinia. 


and  fancy  could  suggest  would  have  been  none  too  good.  It  seems  to  me,  there- 
fore, probable  that  in  the  great  variety  of  beds  represented  on  red-figured  vases 
we  have  that  which  is  lacking  for  the  black-figured  period — something  approaching 
a complete  catalogue  of  the  forms  actually  in  use,  of  common  as  well  as  of  elegant 
beds. 

The  occasional  occurrence  on  red-figured  vases"  of  the  older  elaborate  tyj)e 
of  bed  with  rectangular,  incised  legs  testifies  to  its  existence  unmodified  until  at 
least  the  middle  of  the  century.  Within  this  time  the  related  design  already 

‘ .See  Haumfjs'I'KR,  Vol.  I,  Fij;.  -n)i=  Mon.  d.  I.,  Monuments  Riot,  Vo!.  1 (1894),  I’iale  VII,  and  \’ol. 
Vol.  VIII,  Plate  27;  Overbeck,  Allas  dcr  Kiinstmy-  LX  (1902),  Plate  II,  and  IFariwic,  Mcistcrschalcn, 
Ihologic,  Plate  VI,  2 and  3=(/IR.\rd,  Fig.  4388;  Plate  LXX,  2. 


26 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


noted  in  one  Etruscan  example  (Plate  I),  which  has  the  legs  at  the  head  and  foot 
of  equal  height  and  all  terminating  above  in  volutes,  makes  an  appearance  in 
Attica  (hcadjhccc,  chap.  i). 

Other  styles  of  beds  show  the  influence  of  the  chief  type  known  through  black- 
figured  vases  in  having  a head-rest  and  volutes  at  the  head  of  the  bed  and  shorter 

legs  at  the  foot.  They  do 
not  have  incisions  or  pal- 
mettes,  rosettes,  or  other 
ornaments;  the  legs  differ 
further  from  incised  legs 
in  that  they  taper  more  or 
less  toward  the  bottom 
and  sometimes  have, 
almost  at  the  ground-line, 
ring-like  or  ball-like  inter- 
ruptions of  their  otherwise  straight  outlines  (Figs.  26  and  g).^  A few  vase-paintings 
show  similar  beds  with  a vase-like  termination  of  the  legs  at  the  head  instead  of 
volutes  (Fig.  22)." 

But  even  plainer  beds  than  these  were  frequent — frameworks  of  rectangular, 
straight  legs  and  connecting  rails,  without  head-rests  or  adornment  (Fig.  25). 
Other  beds  are  completely  hidden  by  drapery;  the  presumption  is  that  they  were 
of  very  rough  construction.^ 

Among  rude  common  beds  were  two  styles  knov/n  each  in  only  a few  represen- 
tations (Figs.  23  and  24). This  seems  a recognizable  instance  when  the  relative 
frequency  of  forms  on  vases  is  not  a safe  criterion  of  their  relative  frequency  in 
actual  use.  (C/.  p.  15.)  One  might  indeed  be  inclined  to  think  these  the  chance 
creations  of  the  vase-])ainters,  were  it  not  that  the  forms  of  the  legs  are  known  on 
stools;  they  were,  therefore,  in  all  probability  copies  of  existent  beds. 

The  same  argument  applies  to  certain  beds  with  turned  legs  of  a simple  and 


' Wien.  Vorlegebl.,  Series  D,  Plate  XII,  3 & = 
GjolbascJii-Trysa,  p.  103,  Fig.  iog=Mon.  d. 

Vol.  X,  Plate  LIII,  i;  Compte-rendii,  1869,  Plate 
VI;  Millingen,  Peintures  antiques  de  vases  grecs 
de  la  collection  dc  Sir  John  Cogliill,  Plate  VIII; 
Jahrb.,V<A.  V (1890),  Anz.,  p.  89;  De  Ridder,  Cata- 
logue des  vases  peints  de  la  Bibliotlieque  nationale, 
Part  II,  Plate  XXVIII,  No.  940.  The  unpublished 
vases  E 453  and  E 454  of  the  British  Vluseum  also 
show  the  same  type  of  bed  as  Figs.  26  and  9 above. 

“ Cj.  Collection  Camille  Lecuyer.  Terrecuites 
antiques,  Vol.  II,  E 5. 


3 E.  g.,  Milun-Reinach,  Peintures  de  vases 
antiques,  I,  59,  and  Le  Bas-Reinach,  Voyage 
archeologique  en  Grice  et  cn  Asie  Mineure,  Plate 
54  = Epjedrichs-Wolters,  Gipsabgiisse  antiker 
Bildwerke,  No.  1059. 

There  is  a similar  bed  pictured  on  the  British 
Museum  cylix  E 38,  which  was  painted  by  Epictetus, 
and  another  on  a psycter  in  the  museum  at  Corneto 
(Moscioni,  photograph  No.  8254). 


FIFTH  CENTURY 


27 


graceful  pattern  illustrated  in  Fig.  28.  This  is  probably  the  earliest  type  of  bed-leg 
found  on  Attic  monuments,  and  it  appears  afterward  only  on  a few  red-figured 
vases  of  the  severe  style.  But,  considering  the  frequency  of  this  particular  pattern 
of  turned  work  on  stools,  evidenced  by  numerous  reliefs'  and  vase-paintings,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  beds  of  which  we  have  these  slight  glimpses  at  two  widely 


distant  periods  were  common  m Attica  from  the 
Dipylon  age  at  least  through  the  fifth  century. 
The  fifth-century  examples  differ  from  the  very 
early  ones  in  the  addition  of  a head-rest;  just 
how  long  this  style  continued  in  vogue  is  impos- 
sible to  say. 

As  in  Etruria  so  in  Attica  heavy  turned  legs, 
higher  at  the  head  than  the  frame  of  the  bed,  are 
also  found  in  the  fifth  century.  One  example  is 
given  from  a severe  red-figured  vase  fragment  (Fig 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  century  there  is 


Fig.  10. — Part  of  a dining-couch.  Fragment  of 
a red-figured  vase. — Found  at  Menidi. 


. 10),  and  there  are  numerous  otheys. 
an  innovation  in  the  introduction 
upon  headboards  and  footboards 
of  uprights  which  are  curved  in  out- 
line and  no  longer  have  the  appear- 
ance of  being  of  one  piece  with  the 
legs  (Figs.  II  and  44).  These  occur 
in  combination  with  both  turned 
and  rectangular  legs.  Modifica- 
tions, which  are  common  later,  from 
the  old  design  of  rectangular,  incised 
legs  probably  began  to  appear  after 
the  middle  of  the  century. 

The  most  important  fifth-  Lyda 
century  monuments  neither  Attic 
nor  Etruscan  showing  beds  are  the 


Gjolbaschi  reliefs.  On  these  the  couches  are  all  draped,  but  the  legs  are  suffi- 
ciently exposed  to  show  that  they  are  about  equally  divided  belween  turned  and 


* C/.  my  remarks,  Jahrh.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902), 
[).  133  anrl  Fijr.  9 and  Studniczka,  recently  in  the 
same  publication,  Vol.  XIX  (1904),  p.  4. 

^ See  PoTTiEK,  Eludes  sur  Ics  Iccythes  bln  lies 
altiques,  Plate  I;  Ami.  d.  1868,  Plate  C;  the  two 
instances  just  cited  have  many  turnings  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  legs  at  the  head,  as  in  Fig.  10 
above.  The  following  ])robably  belongs  to  the 
same  class,  J.  II.  S.  Vol.  VII  (1887),  ]>.  440,  as  the 


legs  at  the  foot  have  the  same  form  as  above  in  Fig. 
7;  the  upper  part  of  the  leg  at  the  head  of  the  l>cd  is 
destroyed.  'Phe  turned  legs  shown  in  Murr.-w, 
Designs  ji'oiii  Greek  I'usc.v  in  the  British  Miisciini, 
Plate  XV,  No.  60  = Mon.  d.  /.,  \'ol.  V,  Plate  XldX, 
and  in  Gkkil.ard,  Coupes  cl  vases  du  Musec  dc 
Berlin,  Plate  II,  are  .somewhat  dilTerent  in 
design,  more  like  the  form  which  ap|)ears  above 
in  Fig.  6. 


28 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


incised  types.'  A little  Benotian  terra-cotta  couch  {Atheii.  Mitt.,  Vol.  X [1885], 
Plate  IV),  dating  from  the  early  part  of  the  century,  is  unfortunately  too  rude  to 
be  entirely  trustworthy  and  clear  as  to  form,  l)ut  it  seems  to  have  plain,  rectangu- 
lar legs  and,  what  is  particularly  interesting  thus  early,  at  the  two  ends  very  high 
rests  slightly  curved  outward. 

Fourth  Century  The  material  for  the  next  few  liundred  years  until  the  Roman  period  is  not 
nearly  so  abundant  as  for  the  fifth  century  and  is  geographically  from  widely  scat- 
tered sources.  Fourth-century  beds,  so  far  as  we  know  them,  belong  to  the  two 
general  classes,  those  with  rectangular  and  those  with  turned  legs,  and  are  adapta- 
tions of  older  styles. 

Eutcea  A marble  funerary  couch  in  a tomb  at  Eretria  (Atheii.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XXVI  [1901], 
Plate  XIII)  shows  the  differentiation  of  head  and  foot  familiar  in  beds  on  the 
black-figured  vases,  but  the  rectangular  legs  have  lost  their  characteristic  incisions 
and  rosettes.  The  amphicephaloiis  variant  of  the  older  type,  however,  has  become 
the  prevailing  one,  and  the  legs  never  present  the  exact  scheme  of  ornament  famil- 
iar from  an  earlier  period.  Now  the  rosettes  are  lacking,  and  the  palmettes  and 
incisions  occupy  the  legs  entirely  to  the  rails, ""  or  the  rosettes  are  replaced  by  medal- 
lions in  which  are  faces, ^ or  the  incisions  disappear  and  the  leg  is  covered  with 
ornamental  details  which  nevertheless  are  reminiscences  in  part  of  the  older  style 
(frontis})iece).  Wide  rails  are  now  common,  or  there  are  two,  a wide  upper  one 
and  a narrow  lower  one.  This  last  arrangement  is  characteristic  of  the  Macedonian 
funerary  couches  of  marble  (see  Fig.  12),  dating,  according  to  their  discoverer, 
from  the  close  of  the  century.  The  constructional  lines  of  the  terra-cotta  model 
given  in  the  colored  plate  are  like  those  of  the  Macedonian  couches;  the  space 
between  the  rails  is  here  filled  in  with  reliefs,  which  look  inconveniently  high; 
further,  the  place  of  the  volutes  is  taken  in  this  especially  rich  couch  by  panels  in 
low  relief,  representing  figures  in  rapid  motion. 

South  Italian  vases  show  curved  rests  on  beds  with  rectangular  legs — beds  similar 
to  the  fifth-century  example  given,  only  more  elaborate,  with  ornamented  rail  and 
the  foot  decorated  with  various  moldings,  and  in  one  instance  with  figures. ^ 

One  of  the  earliest  representatives  of  its  class,  perhaps  belonging  to  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century,  is  a marble  funerary  couch  in  a tomb  at  Vathia  on  the  island 
of  Fluboea  {Athen.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XXVI  [1901],  Plate  XVI,  here  Fig.  38).  This  has 


^ Gjolhaschi-Trysa,  cj.  Plates  VII,  VIII  with 
Plates  XX,  XXL 

^ .JaJirb.,  Vol.  XV  (1900),  p.  78,  Fig.  i^^Arch. 
Zeil.,  1867,  Plate  220. 

3 Mon.  d.  I.,  1854,  Plate  16.  There  is  a possi- 
bility that  this  and  the  preceding  example  may 
belong  to  the  closing  years  of  the  fifth  century 


rather  than  to  the  opening  of  the  fourth,  where  I 
would  place  them. 

4 Haumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  792=3/0;;.  d.  /., 
Vol.  V,  Plate  XI  and  Elite  ccr.  Vol.  II,  Plate  23A 
= B.  M.  Vases,  Vol.  IV,  F.  399.  Like  the  vases 
cited  in  the  two  preceding  notes  these  may  however 
date  from  the  close  of  the  fifth  century. 


FOURTH  CENTURY 


29 


a curved  rest  at  the  head,  but  none  at  the  foot.  Its  turned  legs  are  of  a pattern 
differing  distinctly  from  earlier  ones.  There  are  more  members;  the  three  rings 
above  and  the  introduction  toward  the  bottom  of  a nonturned  member — in  this 
case  claws — are  features  common  on  many  subsec|uent  examples.  It  is  noticeable 
in  the  end-view  that  the  supports  at  the  back  of  the  couch  are  of  a different  pat- 
tern from  those  at  the  front. 


Fig.  12. — Marble  funerary  couch.  Found  in  a tomb  in  Macedonia. — Louvre. 


There  are  also  some  couches  whose  forms  are  not  evident  because  of  envelop- 
ing drapery  (see  Fig.  37). 

Small  terra-cottas,  representing  one  or  more  j)ersons  seated  or  lying  on  a Hellenistic 
couch,  furnish  considerable  evidence  for  the  Hellenistic  ])criod.  The  Myrina  Asia  Minor 
grou])s  all  have  turned  legs  of  a pattern  (Fig.  30)  similar  to  tliat  already  noted  on 
the  Vathia  couch;  instead  of  claws  there  arc  sphinxes  introduced  between  the 
turned  members  and  often  foliage  forms  as  well,  ddicsc  couches  have  sometimes 
one  and  sometimes  two  curved  rests. 

Another  style  of  turned  leg  is  shown  on  terra-cottas  of  Italian  origin  in  the  Uaiy 
form  of  couches  having  a single  reclining  figure  (Plate  \dl/;).  In  these  the  legs 


30 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


Egypt 


Etruria 


Italy 


Southern  Russia 


Asia  Minor 


are  heavy  and  monotonous,  consisting  of  numerous  exactly  similar,  cushion-like 
members.  Fig.  13  shows  another  turned  pattern  on  a bit  of  Egyptian  faience," 
dating  probably  from  this  period.  Some  Etruscan  terra-cotta  cinerary  urns  of 
small  size  arc  partially  in  the  form  of  couches,  the  legs  being  in  relief  on  the  front 
of  the  urns,  and  the  mattress  and  recumbent  hgurcs  forming  the  cover.  These 
have  no  rests,  the  rail  is  strikingly  slender, 
and  the  legs  arc  turned,  being  varied  more 
than  those  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of 
this  paragraph,  but  bearing  no  resemblance 
to  the  Myrina  type.^ 

Other  late  cinerary  urns  very  closely 
resemble  the  Myrina  couches;  the  sphinxes 
arc  higher  up  on  the  legs  in  the  specimens 
shown  in  Figs.  14  and  50,^  and  toward  the 
bottom  is  one  member  consisting  of  foliage, 
instead  of  two  as  in  Fig.  30.  Fig.  14  shows  a 
feature  common  in  couches  and  chairs  from 
this  time  on;  i.  r.,  the  rails  rest  upon  the  suji- 
ports  instead  of  extending  between  them.'* 

An  actual  couch  from  southern  Russia, 
the  earliest  specimen  (with  the  exception  of  the  unique  early  bronze  couch  of  the 
Vatican,  sec  p.  20)  which  is  at  all  completely  preserved,  probably  dates  from  the 
middle  of  the  third  century.^  It  has  a curved  head-rest,  but  no  foot-rest;  per- 
haps the  latter  has  been  lost.  The  turned  legs  are  only  in  part  preserved,  but  are 
nevertheless  clearly  of  slender  proportions  and  of  a pattern  wholly  unlike  that  of  the 
Vlyrina  couches.  Closely  similar  in  the  pattern  of  the  legs  is  another  slightly  later 
extant  couch,  the  one  from  Priene  in  the  Berlin  museum,'^  a couch  that  certainly 
dates  from  the  second  century  B.  C.  As  restored  it  has  a curved  rest  only  at  the 
head  and  braces  in  both  directions  between  the  supports.  That  turned  legs  of 
slender  pro})ortions  and  comparatively  few  members  existed  simultaneously  with 


Fig.  13. — Fragment  of  Egyptian  Faience. — Berlin. 


' This  is  to  be  published  elsewhere  in  colors, 
together  with  another  fragment  from  the  same  vase. 
See  p.  97,  n.  2. 

^ There  are  a large  number  of  these  in  the 
Archaeological  Museum  in  Florence  which,  so  far 
as  I know,  are  not  published. 

3 Published:  Amelung,  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XVII 
(1902),  p.  271,  Fig.  I. 

4 C/.  Jahrh.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  p.  133. 

5 Dr.  Amelung,  loc.  cii.,  p.  274,  speaks  of  this 


couch  as  from  a south-Russian  grave  of  the  fourth 
century.  It  was  found,  however,  not  in  the  grave 
but  in  the  earth  piled  up  over  it,  and  the  date  given 
by  Stephani  for  the  contents  of  the  grave  {Conipte- 
rendu,  1880,  pp.  25,  26),  not  earlier  than  284  B.  C.,  is 
substantiated  by  a coin  found  in  it  of  the  king 
Ikerisades  II.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  284  B.  C. 
Now,  the  couch,  if  not  contemporary  with  the 
grave,  is  more  likely  to  be  later  than  earlier. 

^ Jahrb.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  p.  134,  Fig.  ii. 


HELLENISTIC  PERIOD 


31 


such  heavier,  more  complicated  designs  as  those  of  the  Myrina  terra-cottas  is  shown 
in  the  so-called  Icarius  reliefs  where  both  styles  appear. " 

The  combination  of  the  curved  rests  wdth  rectangular  legs,  which  has  been 
noted  on  vases,  apparently  did  not  survive  into  the  Hellenistic  period.  The  Tele- 


Fig.  14. — Terra-cotta  cinerary  urn. — Musco  Kirchcriano,  Rome. 


phus  frieze  from  Pergamon  shows  both  turned  and  incised  bed-legs p unfortunately 
there  is  only  a fragment  of  each  bed  remaining.  The  turned  leg  seems  to  be  of  the 
pattern  made  familiar  in  the  Myrina  terra-cottas.  The  incised  leg  is  tlie  latest 

^ Jalirb.,  Vol.  XV  (1900),  Plate  1,  21  and  51. 


‘ Arch.  Zeit.,  1881,  Plate  14. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


Etruria 


Asia  Minor 


ROMAN 
Early  Period 

Continuance  of 
Greek  De- 
signs 


example  known  to  me  of  its  kind  on  a loecl;  it  would  seem  as  if  beds  with  rectangular, 
incised  legs  went  out  of  style  during  the  Hellenistic  aged 

ddie  degeneration  (the  beginnings  of  which  we  have  already  noted)  of  the 
incised  pattern  is  very  marked  at  this  period.  Even  mongrel  specimens  appear, 
as  on  a second-century  Etruscan  urn  (Martha,  L'art  Hrusque,  p.  353,  Eig.  242). 
In  this  the  legs  show  on  the  u})per  part  features  of  the  rectangular,  incised  pattern, 
and  below  a bell-like  termination,  wdiich  is  evidently  turned  work.  Eurther, 
curved  rests,  not  volutes,  crown  the  legs. 

Plates  IV,  V,  and  VI  show  two  fragments  of  a marble  couch  from  Pergamon 
of  the  early  second  century.  The  restoration  is  discussed  on  pp.  93  ff.,  and  the 
view  is  advanced  that,  in  the  absence  of  corroborating  representations,  it  cannot 
be  assumed  that  supjforts  in  the  form  of  a griffin  instead  of  regular  legs  were  ever 
features  of  real  couches. 

The  one  style  of  elegant  couch  common  in  the  early  years  of  the  Roman  empire 
is  that  known  to  us  hrst  in  the  second  half  of  the  hfth  century;  this,  undergoing 
some  changes,  apparently  gained  its  fullest  pojjularity  in  the  early  Roman  age.  I 
speak  of  the  bed  with  turned  legs  and  one  or  two  curved  rests,  already  so  frequently 
referred  to  in  this  sketch.  This  is  the  period  from  which  the  greatest  number  of 
preserved  parts  of  couches  has  come,  and  they  are  all  of  the  type  just  mentioned. 
The  Boscoreale  bed  in  Berlin,^  the  three  couches^  from  a Pompeian  triclinium  in 
the  Naples  museum,  and  the  Ancona  beds,'*  all  are  examples  which  have  been 
set  together  as  couches,  in  at  least  approximately  correct  form.  The  Orvieto 
(Plates  XX-XXVI)  and  Norcia^  beds  are  wrongly  restored.  There  are  very  many 
so-called  hiseUia  (Plates  VIII  and  XVIII)^  which  are  no  doubt  made  up  of  parts 
of  couches  and  would  admit  of  correct  restoration.  In  addition  to  these  more  or 
less  complete  httings  of  individual  beds,  there  exists  a vast  quantity  of  the  curved 
rests  (Plates  XI,  XII,  and  XVI),  seldom  with  their  full  adornment;  also  of  separate 


^ The  incised  leg  appears  later  on  chairs  in 
Pompeian  wall-paintings  and  in  the  sculptures  of 
the  Ara  Pads.  But  the  instances  in  paintings  are 
probably  taken  over  with  the  designs  as  a whole 
from  earlier  originals.  Professor  Petersen  has 
])ointed  out  (Am  Pads  Aiigiistae,  p.  68)  that  the 
Temple  of  the  Great  Alother  on  the  Ara  Pads 
must  be  a co]>y  of  the  edifice  erected  204--191  B.  C. 
This  takes  the  chair  form  in  the  pediment  of  this 
temple  as  represented  on  the  Ara  Pads  back  to  the 
time  of  the  Telephus  frieze. 

^ Jahrb.,  Vol.  XV  (1900),  Aus.,  p.  178. 

3 One  of  these  has  been  reproduced  numerous 
times;  for  example,  Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  329, 


and  Mau-Kelsey,  Pompeii:  Its  Lije  and  ArP, 
P-  367,  Fig-  188. 

4 Brizio,  pp.  445  ff.,  Figs.  8-27. 

5 Pasqui,  cols.  234  ff. 

® Besides  those  published  here,  the  “Capitoline 
Bisellium”  (Bidlcttino  della  commissione  arclieo- 
logica  cornmimale  di  Roma,  Vol.  II,  Plates  II-IV, 
pp.  22-32  =Amelung,  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XVII 
[1902],  p.  271,  Fig.  i=Helbig,  Fiihrcr^,  Vol.  I,  p. 
383,  No.  569),  one  in  the  Louvre  (Giraudon, 
photograph  No.  188  of  series  of  bronzes  in  the 
Louvre),  and  two  in  Naples  (Real  museo  borbonico, 
Vol.  II,  Plate  XXXI)  may  be  cited. 


EARLIER  ROMAN  PERIOD 


33 


pieces  (Plates  XIII,  XIV,  XVa,  h,  d,  and  XVII)  belonging  to  such  rests,  and  of 
parts  of  turned  legs,  although  the  latter  when  detached  are  less  commonly  thought 
worthy  of  exhibition.  This  type  of  bed  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  dis- 
cussion. It  seems  generally  conceded  that  couches  not  used  for  dining  had  at  this 
period  two  rests;  that,  of  the  three  in  a triclinium,  the  upper  couch  had  a head-rest, 
the  lowex  a foot-rest,  and  the  middle  none  at  all. ' The  correct  sloping  position  of 
these  rests,  extending  in  a graceful  curve  beyond  the  lines  of  the  bed,  has  been  made 
clear  by  Professor  Pernice;^  it  was  the  form  inherited  from  the  Greek  period.  Dr. 
Amelung,  in  the  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  pp.  271  ff.,  however,  cites  a few 
instances  where  the  monuments  show  rests  of  quicker  curve  occupying  a perpen- 
dicular position  directly  above  the  legs.  These  are  probably  early  manifestations 
of  the  Roman  tendency  (very  marked  in  forms  of  Roman  development,  as  we  shall 
see)  to  make  the  rests  straighter  as  well  as  higher.  One  of  the  examples  published 
by  Dr.  Amelung  {loc.  cit.,  p.  273,  Fig.  2)  shows  further  the  construction  of  the 
rests  at  the  ends.  In  this  case  three  rails  curving  slightly  outward,  with  spaces 
between  them  and  between  the  lowest  rail  and  the  frame  of  the  couch  at  the  seat- 
level,  connect  the  curved  ornamental  pieces  at  the  front  and  back  of  the  couch. 
This  is  valuable  evidence,  as  in  restorations  these  front  and  back  uprights  have 
always  been  connected  by  a solid  surface  having  the  same  curve  as  the  uprights, 
which  arrangement  we  now  know  was  certainly  not  always,  if  ever,  in  vogue.  A 
connecting-piece  which  is  not  solid  has  the  support  of  analogies  on  earlier  rests,  ^ 
one  of  them  of  the  same  type  (with  curved  uprights)  as  that  under  discussion. 
Also  some  early  parallels  to  the  outward  curve  may  be  cited.  ^ 

The  Romans  did  not  long  continue  to  use  the  form  of  couch  taken  over  from 
the  Hellenistic  world.  Just  when  it  went  out  of  style  is  difficult  to  say;  I believe 
about  the  close  of  the  first  century  A.  D.^ 

We  must  now  turn  to  distinctly  Roman  beds,  of  which  representations  abound 
on  late  monuments.  These  all,  with  a few  possible  exceptions,  have  turned  legs 


'■  This  statement  is  sometimes  made  to  apply  in 
general  to  the  type  with  curved  rests.  It  holds 
good,  so  far  as  I know,  for  the  Roman  period.  But 
there  exist  earlier  couches  with  only  one  rest  which 
were  not  for  banquets,  as  in  certain  terra-cottas 
of  the  Myrina  type.  The  “ Aldobrandini  Wed- 
ding” is  a case  in  point,  for,  though  executed  in 
the  Augustan  periorl,  it  is  a copy  of  an  earlier 
painting. 

* Jahrb.,  Vol.  XV  (igoo),  Anz.,  ]>]>.  178  ff. 

3 Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  7g2=GiRARn,  Fig. 
4387,  and  Baumeister,  Fhg.  328  = Girard,  F'ig. 

4389- 


It  looks  as  if  the  head-rest  of  the  second  bed 
referred  to  in  the  previous  note  might  be  an  instance. 
A terra-cotta  in  the  British  Museum  from  Eretria, 
No.  C 208,  is  curved  out  at  the  frame-level  (B.  M. 
Terracottas,  I'late  XXXIV,  but  not  very  clear  in 
the  side-view  given).  Analogous  to  this  is  the  j)lacc 
for  the  head  in  the  marble  funerary  couch  given  in 
the  Revue,  arclicologique,  1876,  Plate  XIII. 

3 It  is  not  common  even  on  early  imjicrial  monu- 
ments and  never  ajipears  on  distinctly  late  Roman 
reliefs.  The  style  of  the  details  on  the  jireserved 
sjiecimens  seems  to  me  for  the  most  part  to  jioint 
to  the  first  century  1). 


Later  Period 
Characteristically 
Roman  Designs 


34 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


of  ugly  patterns  (see  Fig.  15)  and  are  comparatively  low,  some  extremely  low;  the 
legs  never  extend  above  the  level  of  the  frame.  So  far  as  the  monuments  give 
details,  the  frame  when  not  plain  shows  one  of  the  schemes  of  Fig.  16  {cf.  Figs. 
14,  31,  Plates  XXVIII,  and  Plate  XXIXu)  rather  than  rosettes,  animals,  or  any  of 
the  motives  common  in  the  Greek  period. 


Fig.  15. — Specimens  of  turned  legs  from  Roman  couches. 


There  are  couches  without 
backs  and  with  curved  rests  at  the 
two  extremities,  very  different, 
however,  in  appearance  from  the 
earlier  Roman  couches.  The  rests 
are  of  various  designs,  are  higher 
and  in  an  upright  position  in  a line  with  the  bed-legs,  and  the  curve  is  slighter, 
sometimes  amounting  merely  to  an  outward  turning  of  the  upper  edge.  A sar- 
cophagus cover  in  couch  form  of  the  first  half  of  the  third  century  is  shown  in  Fig. 
17;  the  rests  end  above  in  horses’  heads,  below  in  lions’  heads.  A very  favorite 
motive,  one  which  permeates  Roman  decoration  generally  and  occurs  also  on  other 
late  types  of  couches  (see  p.  36),  is  the  dolphin.'  This  appears  on  couches  with 
the  dolphin  head  resting  on  the  frame,  and  the  body  and  tail  swinging  in  lively 

curve  aloft  (Plate  XXVIII).  - , 

Beds  with  headboards  of  a height  equal  to  ^ ^ 

that  of  the  legs,  and  very  low  foot-boards  or 
none  at  all,  seem  also  to  have  existed.^ 

But  the  greatest  innovation  of  the  Romans 
was  the  introduction  of  a back;  it  would  be 
interesting  to  know  just  how  early  it  came  in.  The  word  pluteus,  perhaps  “back,” 
is  used  of  couches,  so  far  as  I know,  first  in  Propertius  (see  p.  in,  n.  17).  Plate 
XXlXh  shows  what  is  probably  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  a back  in  couch 
representations.  The  structure  is  unusual  in  the  following  particulars:  the  back 
is  open  rather  than  solid  and  has  a middle  rail,  a bracing-bar  appears  above  the 


3 c 


Fig.  16. — Patterns  from  the  rails  of  Roman  couches. 


' See  Baumeister,  Vol.  Ill,  Fig.  i6io  = Combe, 
Ancient  Marbles  in  the  British  Museum,  Vol.  V, 
Plate  IX,  3;  Graeven,  Phot.  i.  Very  common, 
according  to  Graeven,  p.  i,  n.  i,  on  early  Christian 
ivories.  Another  late  example,  rejjroduced  by 
Girard,  Fig.  4396,  is  from  the  Vatican  manuscript 
of  Virgil.  There  are  numerous  extant  dolphins  of 
metal  in  the  British  Museum,  the  Cabinet  des 
Medailles,  and  elsewhere.  Some  of  these  have 
been  thought  to  be  parts  of  articles  of  furniture. 
The  “Campana  relief”  in  the  British  Museum, 
No.  D 603  (IVIansell,  photograph  No.  1400; 


CouB'E,  Ancient  Terracottas  in  the  British  Museum, 
Plate  10  and  B.  M.  Terracottas,  Plate  XLIII)  shows 
two  dolphins  diagonally  placed  between  the  seat 
and  round  of  Athena’s  stool,  and  one  of  the  extant 
metal  dolphins  in  the  same  museum  has  a slant 
suitable  to  such  a position.  Others  of  the  extant 
pieces  are  intended  to  occupy  an  upright  position, 
and  may  perhaps  come  from  couches. 

^ Graeven,  Phot,  i;  Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig. 
5;  relief  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  Room  XIII,  No. 
849. 


LATER  ROMAN  PERIOD 


35 


floor-level  between  the  legs,  and  the  arms  are  lower  than  the  back.  In  fact,  it  seems 
better  adapted  for  use  as  a settee  than  as  a couch  for  reclining,  and  it  agrees  in  most 
particulars  with  the  piece  of  furniture  on  which  the  emperor  Augustus  and  the 
goddess  Roma  are  seated,  as  depicted  on  a famous  cameo  in  Vienna.'  None 
of  the  representations  of  couches  with  solid  backs  of  the  common  forms  now  to  be 
enumerated,  with  which  I am  familiar,  would  antedate  the  latter  half  of  the  first 
century  A.  D. 


One  of  the  stock  subjects  on  Roman  gravestones,  whether  found  in  England, 
along  the  Rhine,  on  the  Greek  islands,  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  old  Roman 
dominions,  was  an  adaptation  of  the  time-honored  “funerary  bancpiet”  motive. 
The  study  of  a large  number  of  these  reliefs  and  their  accompanying  inscriptions 
would  no  doubt  yield  information  as  to  the  chronology  of  beds  with  backs,  as  well 
as  matter  of  much  greater  interest.  Figs.  40  and  18  give  two  couches  from  grave- 
stones of  this  class,  found  on  the  island  of  Paros.  Fig.  40  shows  the  more  usual 
form  with  curved  end-pieces,  but  of  extra  large  size.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  upper 
part  of  the  couches  is  very  jnominent.  The  legs  look  weak  and  insignificant,  and 
their  height  does  not  ecjual  that  of  the  sujiported  jiortion.  Three  sides  are  inclosed; 
the  back  and  cnd-])ieces  are  of  the  same  height  and  apparently  solid;  the  back  often 

' Furtwangler,  Die  anlikcn  Gemmcn,  Plate  form  must  have  liecn  tliat  sugf'c.sted  above.  Tlic 

LVl.  d’he  terra-cotta,  of  course,  necessarily  shows  analogy  of  the  Vienna  cameo,  which  is  not  ambiguous 

the  spaces  between  the  rails  solid,  but  unless  we  on  this  point,  strengthens  the  view  which  1 have 

arc  to  su])po.se  these  spaces  in  the  structure  repro-  taken.  Cj.,  however,  B.  M . Terracollos,  j>.  365, 

duced  to  have  been  paneled  up  at  the  back,  the  No.  I)  359. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  FORMS 


has  the  same  profile  with  the  sides,  as  sarcophagi  in  couch  form  show.'  Such 
sarcoiihagi  or  the  representations  of  these  couches  on  sarcophagi  are  less  rude,  as 
a rule,  than  the  gravestones.  No  doubt  the  models,  too,  were  often  better  couches. 
In  Fig.  31,  reproducing  the  front  of  a sarcophagus  from  Syria,  the  pattern  of  the 
turned  legs  and  of  the  crossboard  and  the  conventionalized  dolphin  form  of  the 

front  extremities  of  the  rests  are  all 
evident. 

A certain  number  of  Roman 
beds  have  the  headboards,  foot- 
boards, and  back  (usually  present) 
all  consisting  of  two  members,  the 
upper  one,  either  curved  or  straight, 
issuing  from  the  lower  member, 
which  is  always  curvecF  (Plate 
XXVIII  and  Figs.  19  and  20). 

It  is  a question  whether  any  of 
these  late  couches  ever  had  any- 
thing in  the  nature  of  upholstery. 
In  Plate  XXIXu  is  reproduced  a 
small  terra-cotta  found  in  Egypt.  It  muII  be  seen  that  there  is  a pattern  of  con- 
centric squares  twice  on  the  back  and  also  once  on  the  end  of  the  pillow.  The 
same  design  appears  on  the  end-pieces  both  on  the  inner  and  outer  faces,  and 
also  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  back.  It  docs  not  seem  probable  that  on  such  a 
realistic  piece  of  work  as  this  very  modern-looking  couch,  with  the  dogs 
curled  up  upon  it,  the  ornaments  could  have  been  a mere  fanciful  addition 
of  the  coro})last.  It  looks  as  if  the  frame  of  the  couch  were  covered  with 
a heavy  patterned  material  which  was  padded.  Otherwise  the  ornamental 
sc{uares  must  be  supposed  to  be  carved  or  in  some  way  executed  in  a hard 
material  composing  the  couch;  and  this  has  the  objection  that  such  orna- 
ment usually  adorns  and  emphasizes  the  constructional  parts  of  couches, 
the  legs,  rails,  and  uprights  of  the  headboards  and  footboards,  but  is  not  ordinarily 
dropped  promiscuously  all  over  the  structure  as  here.  Attention  is  called  in  the  Rom. 
Mitt.,  Vol.  VII  (1892),  p.  45,  to  a number  of  couch  representations  (see  Figs.  20  and 
21)  with  lines  upon  them  which  look  as  if  they  represented  masonry.  These  are 


t TO  A lAn  AHKAEl'T'HjI 

Fig.  18. — Relief  on  a Roman  gravestone. — Island  of  Paros. 


Fig.  19 


' I have  photographs,  kindly  given  me  by  Dr. 
Vassits,  of  Belgrade,  of  a specimen  found  at  Vinii- 
nacium,  Moesia  Superior;  and  now  in  the  gymnasium 
at  Pojarevatz  in  Servia. 

^ In  the  Archteological  Museum  in  Florence, 
part  of  a marble  couch,  Amelung,  Fiihrer,  p.  192, 


No.  2i^=Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  I (1886),  pp.  161  ff., 
Plate  VIII,  and  ibid.,Vo\.  VII  (1892),  p.  45,  above, 
Fig.  19;  also  ibid.,  p.  45,  Fig.  VIII,  2 and  6.  Also 
an  unpublished  ( ?)  sarcophagus  standing  in  the 
south  corridor  of  the  Museo  delle  Terme,  Rome. 


LENGTFIS  OF  BEDS 


37 


explained  as  reproductions  of  marble  beds,  built  up  of  Idocks,  and  are  supposed 
to  have  been  used  by  the  living  in  summer,  or  perhaps  to  have  been  placed  in 
tombs.  This  theory  is  not  very  satisfying,'  whereas  the  reliefs  become  perfectly 
intelligible  if  we  may  assume  that  a imddedj^ck  is  represented  fastened  down 
along  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines.  If  an  a priori  argument  is  worth  anything, 
it  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  practical  Romans,  having  once  developed 
such  high  supports  on  their  couches,  would  have  given  them  the  added 
comfort  of  a permanent  padding  of  some  sort,  as  distinguished  from  pillows 
and  other  removable  furnishings. 

One  other  c|uestion  may  be  touched  upon  in  closing  this  chronological 
survey  of  forms.  It  must  have  been  evident  to  the  reader  before  this 
that  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  couches,  as  represented,  are  in  many 
instances  very  short — too  short  to  permit  their  occupants  to  stretch  out  at 
full  length.  Were  the  paintings,  reliefs,  and  terra-cottas  faithful  in  this  par- 
ticular to  facts,  or  have  we  to  do  here  with  an  artistic  convention  ? Couches  long 
enough  for  the  extended  human  body  are  shown  in  prothesis  scenes  (Figs.  4 
and  29)  and  a few  cinerary  urns  (Plate  I) ; in  fact,  whenever  a recumbent  person 
is  represented  his  couch  is  of  suitable  length. 

The  normal  lengths  given  to  extant  couches  in 
the  process  of  restoration  are  vouched  for,  in  a 
few  cases,  by  traces  observed  on  the  floor  at  the 
time  of  finding,^  even  though  their  wooden  rails 
have  invariably  perished.  Evidence  is  not  lack- 
ing, then,  for  couches  of  comfortable  length  for 
lying  flat  upon. 

Greek  art  never  hesitated  to  take  liberties 
with  the  relative  sizes  of  people,  animals,  and 
inanimate  objects  when  the  general  decorative 
filling  of  spaces  could  be  better  attained  thcrcljy. 

Mence  it  should  not  surprise  us  in  vase-paintings  and  relief  sculptures — and  the 
statement  holds  good  for  the  Roman  period  also — to  find  a person  too  large  for 
the  bed  he  is  resting  on.  I believe,  therefore,  that  the  shortness  of  many  beds  seen 


' In  the  first  place,  it  does  not  seem  to  me  j)rob- 
ablc  that  the  Romans  would  have  built  such  couches 
of  masonry;  they  would  rather  have  carved  them 
out  of  whole  blocks  of  marble,  as  they  did  sarcoph- 
a)fi.  Hut  even  if  couches  of  masonry  existed,  they 
were  then  in  desif^n  only  copies  or  modifications 
of  usual  household  couches,  and  would  not  have 


been  rej)roduced  upon  marble  reliefs,  but  their 
models  rather  would  have  served  as  the  models 
also  for  relief  scidpture. 

^ .See  Pkknice,  Jahrb.,  \'ol.  XV  (rgoo),  .l«c., 
p.  178. 


38 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVFA’  OF  FORMS 


on  Greek  vases  is  due  to  arbitrary  variation  from  facts.'  The  (juestion  becomes  more 
difficult  in  the  case  of  couch  reproductions  in  the  round  such  as  those  in  Fig.  14  and 
Plate  XXIX/n  Did  the  artist  depart  from  literal  truth  in  order  to  avoid  an  unoccu- 
pied stretch  of  bed  beyond  the  feet  of  the  half-reclining  person,  and  thus  to  gain 
compactness  of  design  ? I am  inclined  to  think  not.  The  production  of  short 
couches  is  better  vouched  for  in  terra-cottas  such  as  the  one  reproduced  in  Plate 
XXTXu.  Here  there  are  no  occupants  that  affect  the  general  lines  of  the  compo- 
sition, and  one  cannot  see  why  the  terra-cotta  couch  should  be  so  short  unless  its  pro- 
portions had  a real  existence  in  structures  familiar  to  the  designer  of  the  terra-cotta. 

Finally,  in  endeavoring  to  make  vivid  to  ourselves  these  ancient  couches,  a 
comparison  with  modern  styles  may  be  useful.  There  is  no  one  of  all  the  forms 
we  have  been  reviewing  which  bears  any  resemblance  to  modern  single  bedsteads^ 
with  their  high  footboards  and  still  higher  headboards;  much  less  are  there  any 
double  beds  recognizable  on  the  classic  monuments.  Some  of  the  draped  Greek 
couches,  with  their  numerous  pillows,  look  not  very  unlike  the  modern  college 
divan;  the  earlier  ones  are  higher,  to  be  sure,  than  is  thought  desirable  now,  but 
some  of  those  represented  on  late  red-figured  ware  are  as  low  as  modern  couches, 
and  |)rol)ably  would  not  look  out  of  place  in  a present-day  room.  Put  it  is  among 
Roman  couches  that  we  find  the  greatest  number  of  recent-looking  structures. 
There  are  the  short  couches  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  which  find 
numerous  parallels  in  modern  furniture.  The  form  shown  in  Fig.  18  is  very  like 
a high  backed  settle,  and  others  in  their  main  lines  are  not  dissimilar  to  some 
large  davenports  of  the  present  day.  The  dolphins  occasionally  seen  on  the  arms 
of  modern  couches-^  are  surely  a revival  of  the  Roman  motive. 


' This  seems  to  me  far  more  probable  than  that 
Greek  lianquet  couches  were  commonly  short. 
This  view  is  strengthened  by  a parallel  case;  a 
design  on  a bronze  mirror  (Gerhard,  Etruskische 
Spiegel,  Vol.  II,  Plate  CXXV  =Cal.  des  bronzes  ant. 
de  la  Bibl.  nat.,  ]>.  499,  Fig.  1284)  represents 
xVlcmene  and  tlie  newly  born  Heracles  in  bed 
propped  up  among  the  jjillows;  the  bed  would  not 
be  long  enough  for  Alcmene,  were  she  to  lie  out- 
stretched u])on  it.  We  are  not  prepared  to  accept 
this  evidence  literally  as  denoting  the  existence  of 
short  beds.  Since  the  explanation  as  an  artistic 
convention  seems  almost  inevitable  here,  the  same 


may  be  the  more  readily  accepted  for  dining-couches 
which  appear  short. 

^ Cp,  however,  the  toy  bedstead  of  palm  sticks 
found  in  the  Faioum,  and  now  in  the  collection  of 
Professor  W.  Flinders  Petrie,  at  University  College, 
London  (Petrie,  Hawara,  Bialinui  and  Arsinoe, 
p.  12  and  Plate  XIX,  5).  This  is  said  to  date  from 
the  latter  half  of  the  third  century  A.  D. 

3 For  instance,  sec  the  Empire  sofa  owned  by 
Mrs.  William  V^oung  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  which  is 
pictured  in  Singleton,  The  Furniture  oj  Our  Fore- 
fathers, p.  573,  and  is  thus  described  in  the  text; 
“a  fine  example  of  the  period  with  the  metal  dol pliins 
gracefully  curved  along  the  scroll  ends.” 


CHAPTER  II 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 

The  one  detailed  description  in  Homer  of  a bed  is  of  that  of  Odysseus.'  It 
was  of  olive  wood,  carefully  and  accurately  cut  with  the  help  of  a plumb-line,  and 
polished;  gold,  silver,  and  ivory  contributed  to  its  adornment.  The  statement  is 
explicit  as  to  the  materials  employed,  but  not  as  to  the  method  of  putting  them 
together.  The  adjective  Stvwrd?,  applied  in  one  instance  to  a bed,^  in  another  to 
a chair,  ^ in  all  probability  refers  to  legs  of  turned  work.  There  is  no  passage  that 
suggests  the  use  of  metal  otherwise  than  for  adornment. 

The  principal  material  used  in  the  construction  of  Greek  couches  of  historical 
times  was  wood.  Common  beds  were  no  doubt  made  entirely  of  it.  Better  couches 
in  the  early  period  had  their  constructional  parts  of  wood  and  their  ornament  of 
richer  materials.  In  the  Hellenistic  period  couches  made  largely  of  metal  were 
frequent,  but  even  in  these  wood  was  retained  for  some  of  the  constructional  parts. 
How  extensively  and  by  what  technical  processes  metal  was  employed  in  making 
couches  before  the  Hellenistic  period  cannot  with  certainty  be  determined. 

Besides  the  obvious  fact  that  wood  must  have  been  cheaper  and  more  easily 
worked  than  metal,  there  are  positive  indications  of  the  large  use  made  of  it  in  the 
construction  of  Greek  beds.  The  forms  of  beds  as  we  know  them  on  Greek  monu- 
ments look  as  if  made  of  wood,  especially  in  the  patterns  of  the  legs  and  the  frequent 
representations  of  tenons  in  mortises  which  served  to  unite  the  head-rails  and  the 
foot-rails  with  the  legs.  An  instance  of  the  reproduction  of  the  grain  of  wood 
on  a vase-painting  is  given  in  Fig.  22.  Added  to  the  evidence  of  the  monuments 
is  that  of  literature.  In  an  account  of  property  left  by  Demosthenes’s  father, 
which  included  a plant  for  making  knives  and  another  for  the  manufacture  of  beds, 
timbers  for  beds  are  mentioned.  In  Munich  there  is  a fourth-century  inscription-^ 
giving  part  of  a temple  inventory,  which  enumerates  under  objects  of  wood  KXa^rj 
afXLKpa  I.  Theophrastus  refers  to  various  kinds'^  of  wood  as  used  for  making 
couches,  and  Theocritus  mentions  a couch  of  cedar  (XXIV,  43). 

' Kal  t6t'  €ttht'  (XTrAoi/'a  k6/j.t]v  TavvtpvWov 
Kopjj-bv  S'  iK  pi^ris  irpoTapMv 
eS  Kal  iirLiTTapivuys^  Kal  ivl  ardOprjp  Wvva^ 
ippTv'  aaKriffaij  Tirp-qva  5^  irdvra  Tep^rpep, 
iK  5^  ToO  dpxSptvo%  S(ppa  riXeasa^ 

SaiSdWwv  xpvdipre  Kal  dpydpip  rjS'  iXicpavri' 
iv  o'  irdwaa'  ipdpra  dobs  (polvtKi  (pauvbv. 

— 0(1.,  XXIII,  195-201.  <)>■  tcrcbintli  wood.  See  Ui.umnkr,  I cclinologtc, 

^ 11.,  HI,  391.  II,  i>p.  327  and  246  ff. 

.3d 


3 0(1.,  XIX,  56. 

■'Dan.,  XXVII,  10  IT. 

s /.  (/■.,  IV,  39  = Fuktvv.\N('.lkk,  Bcschr.  dcr 
Glypt.,  ]).  152,  No.  196. 

T'hese  are:  lieech,  two  kinds  of  majjle,  a.sh, 
persca,  and  a reddish-linged  variety  of  turpentine 


PREHISTORIC 


HELLENIC 

PERIOD 


General  Statement 
in  Regard  to  Ma- 
terial and  Tech- 
nic 

Evidence  for  Wood 


40 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


(^ther  Materials  Somc  woodcii  couclics  wcrc  cnrichecl  with  other  materials.  Chief  among  these 
was  i\'ory.  Ivory  was  used  in  the  construction  of  beds  in  one  of  the  workshops 
l)elonging  to  Demosthenes’s  father  (see  preceding  paragraph)."  An  inventory, 
dating  from  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  century,  of  the  Herfeum  on  the  island  of 
Samos  records  that  a KXtt'TTjptcr/co?  i\e<f)avTL  [7r]o[i]Kt\o?  had  been  among  the 


cA 


Fig.  22. — Detail  from  a banquet-scene  on  a red- 
iigured  vase. — British  Museum. 


temple  treasures.^  The  presence  of  other 
furniture — three  Qpovoi  jxeydXoL 

dvaKkiaeL'?  eyot'Te?  rjke(f)av- 
TU)jxeva<i,  and  a rpetTre^a  rj\e.<havTMix4vjj 
— in  the  Parthenon  is  significant.^  Many 
black^figured  vases  show  designs  in  white 
on  beds  with  rectangular  legs  and  incis- 
ions,  and  one  is  tempted  to  think  that  the 
color  represents  ivory.  The  fact  that 
ivory  was  much  used  in  ancient  times  for 
various  purposes,  comparatively  more 
than  today,  5 increases  the  likelihood  that 
it  would  have  l)een  employed  extensively 
in  decorating  beds.  Tortoise  shell,  gold. 


silver,*^  and  also  bnjnze,^  may  have  been  among  tlie  accessory  materials  sometimes 
used  on  beds  of  wood.  ( 


' Dan.,  XXVII,  31.  See  also  two  important 
jjassages  ([uoted  and  briefly  discussed  under 
“technic,”  p.  53.  In  one  the  reference  is  to  Sicilian 
beds;  in  the  other  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  whether 
Greek  or  foreign  beds  are  intended. 

^ Michkl,  Rcciicil  iV inscriptions  grecqiics,  hfo. 
832,  1.  49. 

i I.  G.,  II,  2,  p.  33,  No.  676,  11.  14-16;  p.  61, 
No.  701,  col.  II  (III),  11.  43,  44;  p.  70,  No.  713 
and  I,  pp.  73-76,  item  No.  31,  and  II,  2,  p.  33,  X"o. 
676,  1.  29  = Michaklis,  Der  Parthenon,  j).  298, 
XIII,  36,  and  p.  296,  I ff. 

White  seems  to  be  used  on  black-figured  vases 
with  some  degree  of  a])proi)riateness,  as  for  the 
hair  of  old  people,  for  the  flesh  of  women,  and  for 
garments  which  may  be  supposed  to  be  white. 

5 See  Blumner,  Technologie,  II,  p.  363.  C/.  the 

mention  of  ivory  beds,  thrones,  and  ]>alaces  in 
Amos  3:15;  6:4;  Ps.  45:8;  I Kings  io;i8,  22; 
Ezek.  27:6.  Cj.  finally  the  extant  ivory  carvings 


from  a wooden  sarcophagus,  referred  to  p.  46, 
close  of  n.  3. 

^ It  seems  on  the  face  of  it  probable  that  gold 
and  silver,  which  were  apj)lied  to  wooden  furniture 
in  Egypt  (e.  g.,  the  so-called  chair  of  Hatshepsut 
in  the  British  Museum)  and  in  Greece  in  the  Homeric 
period  (see  p.  39,  n.  i),  should  have  had  occasional 
use  in  Greece  in  historical  times  on  especially  fine 
pieces.  Pollux  in  Book  X,  35,  says,  <ro  k&v  i\e<par- 
TtvT)v  eiTTots,  Kai  xfXwj'Tjs ; but  since  he  is  not  expressly 
cpioting  a Greek  writer,  there  is  no  assurance  that 
he  is  referring  to  Greek  couches.  Tortoise  shell, 
if  not  used  in  the  Greek  period  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  warrant  a couch  being  described  as 
may  yet  have  been  employed  for  inlays.  This  is 
one  of  the  numerous  things  which  the  lack  of  evi- 
dence makes  it  impossible  either  to  affirm  or  to 
deny. 

7 The  probabilities  as  to  metal  appliques  are 
discussed  on  p.  44,  n.  5. 


GREEK  PERIOD.  MATERIALS 


41 


Metal  as  the 

More  Important 
Material 


Wooden  couches  were  probably  sometimes  beautified  by  veneers  of  finer  Veneers  of  Wood 
woods,  such  as  boxd 

At  least  as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  there  were  couches  in  the  construction 
of  which  metal  was  extensively  used.  The  most  satisfactory  evidence  for  this, 
especially  since  it  is  of  contemporary  date,  is  in  Thucydides.^  We  are  told  that 
after  the  siege  of  Plataea  (427  B.  C.)  beds  were  made  of  bronze  and  iron^  and 
dedicated  to  Hera.  Thirteen  kXlvmv  TrdSe?  eTrdpyvpoi  are  cited,  for  the  first  time 
in  the  year  434-33  B.  C.,"*  in  the  lists  of  the  treasures  kept  in  the  Parthenon.  ITe 
earliest  Greek  bed  made  principally  out  of  metal,  parts  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us,  is  the  one  found  in  the  Crimea,^  dating  from  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  B.  C.  Very  important  constructional  parts  of  this,  viz.,  the  legs  and  the 
curved  uprights  of  the  head-rest,  are  of  bronze.®  The  original  horizontal  frame 
and  the  portion  of  the  head-rest  between  the  uprights  which  have  perished  were 
of  wood.  Of  the  same  general  type  is  the  bronze  bed  from  Priene.'^  A youth  of 
the  town  of  Paphus  is  described  by  Clearchus  of  Soli*  (time  of  Alexander)  as  reclin- 
ing in  excessive  luxury  upon  a couch  with  silver  legs.  At  one  of  the  accession 
festivities  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  one  hundred  “golden  couches”  were  in  use.® 

The  two  passages  last  referred  to,  the  existence  of  two  specimens  made  largely  of 


' The  evidence  in  regard  to  veneers  is  given  in 
Blumner,  Technologie,  II,  p.  328.  Cj.,  however, 
Svoronos-Barth,  Das  Athener  National  Museum, 
Part  II,  p.  52,  where  dii<piKo\\oi  wapaiTV^ivOL  [Ilapa- 
iTD^oi?  But  the  two  words  do  not  form  a single 
expression  in  ancient  writers.]  is  associated  with  a 
metal  clothing  of  wooden  furniture. 

^ III,  68,  3.  Pliny  {N.  H.,  XXXIV,  2,  9) 
makes  a statement  which  would  be  very  important 
if  w'e  knew  that  he  had  based  it  on  good  authority, 
but  unfortunately  we  do  not  know  that.  He  says 
that  the  bronze  of  Delos  became  famous  very  early, 
and  that  it  was  first  used  for  the  legs  and  rests  of 
couches  before  figures  of  gods,  men,  and  animals 
were  ever  made  of  it.  The  interest  of  Pliny’s 
information  is  that  it  imjjlies  a continuous  and 
considerable  output  of  bronze  parts  of  couches 
beginning  at  a much  earlier  date  than  that  of  the 
isolated  instance  of  couch-making  out  of  metal 
rej)orted  by  Tliucydides.  In  the  account  of  the 
])roperty  left  by  Demosthenes’s  father,  it  is  not 
clear  whether  the  bronze  and  iron  enumerated 
were  for  exclusive  use  in  the  knife  factory,  or  whether 
some  of  it  was  employed  in  the  ])roduction  of  beds. 

3 Silence  in  regard  to  wood  in  this  pa.ssage 
cannot  be  taken  as  implying  its  entire  absence. 


Nothing  analogous  to  the  modern  metal  bedstead, 
having  its  component  jiarts  entirely  of  metal  and, 
in  consequence,  of  slighter  proportions  and  of 
distinctly  metallic  patterns,  existed  in  antiquity. 
Some  pieces  of  Assyrian  furniture,  in  jiart  preserved 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum  (e.  g.,  Fig.  39), 
presented  a surface  of  metal,  but  their  strength 
was  chiefly  in  the  wood  beneath.  In  the  extant 
specimens  of  Greek  and  Roman  date  metal  is  used 
for  some  of  the  constructional  parts  as  well  as  for 
all  the  ornament,  but  it  was  found  convenient  to 
retain  a certain  amount  of  wood,  in  particular  the 
timbers  forming  the  rails. 

+ 1.  G.,  I,  p.  73,  a),  13.  Mich.aelis,  Dcr  Parthe- 
non, p.  296,  1,  hh,  gives  the  number  incorrectly  as 
twelve. 

5 See  ]).  30. 

* One  upright  and  parts  of  all  four  of  the  legs 
have  been  j)reserved. 

7 See  j).  30. 

^ Quoted  in  Athen.,  VI,  255c. 

9 Athen.,  V,  197a,  h.  In  view  of  this  passage, 
it  is  not  im])robable  that  Bion’s  fancy  in  describing 
the  couch  of  ;\donis  as  “all  of  gold”  (1,  67)  was 
influenced  by  something  he  had  seen. 


42 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


metal,  and  especially  the  well-known  general  increase  of  luxury  in  Hellenistic 
times,  all  are  favorable  to  the  view  that  metal  was  used  much  more  lavishly  on 
couches  after  than  before  the  time  of  Alexander. 

Technic  The  teclmic,  more  than  any  other  division  of  this  investigation,  is  beset  with 
dilTiculties.  It  is  particularly  with  reference  to  construction  that  the  representa- 
tions of  couches  on  the  monuments  are 
more  or  less  ambiguous,  incomplete, 
and  in  some  details  inaccurate.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  that  the  stock  of 
extant  Greek  specimens  is  confined  to 
two  couches  of  late  date.  The  pas- 
sages referred  to  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs and  others,  as  many  as  are 
known  to  me,  in  which  beds  are  men- 
tioned, do  not  yield  anything  decisive 
about  technic.  Perhaps  the  problems 
may  be  best  approached  by  consider- 
ing the  representations  of  a few  beds 
which  seem  to  be  typical  of  various  grades  of  work." 

Rough  Construe-  Bcds  entirely  of  wood  and  of  the  rudest  workmanship  are  illustrated  in  Figs. 
23  and  24.  In  Fig.  23  each  leg  is  of  one 
block  of  wood  (possibly  from  a tree  branch 
already  of  approximately  the  right  size  and 
requiring  only  a little  shaping  with  ax  and 
knife),  and  is  oval  or  round  in  horizontal 
section.  The  rails  are  single  boards  held 
in  place  by  tenons  of  rectangular  shape; 
these  tenons  pass  entirely  through  the  legs 
and  lie  in  a perpendicular  direction  in 
accordance  with  the  position  of  the  rails, 
which  have  their  greatest  thickness  up  and 
down.  In  Fig.  24  the  legs  are  again  roughly 
hewn  out,  but  are  probably  four-sided. 

The  tenons  are  round.  The  uprights  of 
the  headboard  are  in  one  piece  with  the  legs,  as  modern  chair  backs  and  legs  are 
usually  made;  only  here  it  seems  probable,  to  judge  by  the  generally  rude  appear- 
ance of  the  bed,  that  the  natural  bend  of  a branch  has  been  utilized  rather  than 

' 'Fhe  illustrations  are  taken,  unless  otherwise  implied,  from  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries,  for  which 
the  evidence  is  most  complete. 


Fig.  24. — Detail  from  a red-figured  vase-painting. — Arche- 
ological Museum,  Florence. 


Fig.  23. — Detail  from  the  scene  “Theseus  Slaying  Procrustes.” 
Red-figured  vase. 


GREEK  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


43 


that  the  curve  was  bent  or  tooled  out  of  a straight  piece  of  wood.  One  or  two 
rails  probably  connect  the  uprights  above  the  seat-level.  There  is  nothing  to 
indicate  whether  the  side-rails  and  end-rails  are  cylindrical  or  rectangular.  The 
legs  of  these  and  of  some  other  Greek  couches  are  more  than  ordinarily  thick 
at  the  top  as  contrasted  with  the  bottom — a feature  which  exists  probably  to  give 

sufficient  strength  just  at  the  part  which  must 
be  twice  cut  through  to  accommodate  the 
tenons  of  the  side-rails  and  end-rails.  These 
tenons  must,  of  course,  lie  at  different  levels, 
and  this  is  often  evident  on  the  monuments 
(c/.  Fig.  8 and  Plate  I) ; careless  drawing  must 
be  held  accountable  for  instances  in  vase- 
paintings  where  this  does  not  seem  to  be 
possible. 

The  bed  in  Fig.  25  appears  to  be  built  up 
of  eight  planks,  four  for  the  supports  and  as 
many  for  the  rails.  It  gives  the  impression 
of  a rough  structure ; however,  if  made  of  good  material,  a considerable  amount  of 
technical  skill  in  the  way  of  accurate  cutting  and  fine  finish  might  be  expended 
even  on  such  a plain  bed.  It  presents  a constructional  puzzle  very  frequent  in 
the  representations  of  Greek  couches;  that  is,  there  is  no  apparent  provision  for 
holding  the  piece  of  furniture 
steady;  the  height  is  great,  the 
rails  are  not  very  wide,  and  there 
are  no  braces  extending  from  head 
to  foot  above  the  floor.  In  this 
instance,  as  often,  the  legs  are  let 
or  mortised  into  blocks  at  the 
ground  level.  If  these  blocks  rep- 
resent the  ends  of  timbers  between 
the  legs  at  the  short  sides  of  the 
bed,  the  latter  is,  indeed,  strength- 
ened in  the  crosswise  direction, 
but  not  in  its  length.  Possibly, 
therefore,  the  blocks  or  braces  in 
cpicstion  are  to  be  thought  of  as 
fastened,  either  permanently  or  in  .some  removable  way,  to  the  floor.  The  couches 
would  then  be  braced  in  all  directions  and  have  a firmer  stand. 

Fig.  26  is  illustrative  of  a much  better  wooden  construction.  The  legs  arc 


Fig.  25. — Couch  from  a red-figured  vase. — Brilish 
Museion. 


Plank  Construc- 
tions 


44 


MATFJilALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


rectangular  in  plan,  or  possibly  have  the  corners  rounded  off,  and  taper  with  a 
slightly  concave  profile  downward.  Those  at  the  foot  are  in  one  piece.  The 
legs  at  the  head  give  the  effect  of  one  member,  but  in  the  process  of  making  probal^ly 
the  ornamented  top  has  been  mortised  down  upon  the  legs  proper,  which  below  this 
point  arc  just  like  those  at  the  foot.  The  couch  is  well  designed  for  strength;  it 
is  not  too  high,  and  the  rails  are  wide  enough  to  give  a firm  hold  at  the  line  of  junc- 
ture with  the  legs.  second  end-rail  higher  up  between  the  capitals  probably 
forms  the  support  of  mattress  and  pillow.'  The  parts  of  the  couch  are  j)ut  together 
by  invisible  mortises  and  tenons.  The  wood  we  may  suppose  to  be  one  of  the 
better  varieties,  thoroughly  rubbed  with  shark  skin"  to  produce  a smooth  surface, 
and  perhaps  stained.^  The  ornament  may  be  carved  as  in  Fig.  43,  inlaid  or  ap])lied 
in  ivory,’*  or  executed  in  bronze  repousse.^ 

Among  the  most  elaborate  wooden  couches  is  the  style  shown  in  Fig.  27.  It 
has  the  same  constructional  weakness  remarked  in  the  bed  of  Fig.  25;  viz.,  the 
absence  of  braces  in  the  long  direction,  despite  the  great  height  and  the  narrowness 
of  the  side-rail.  Further  the  deep  incisions  into  the  legs  reduce  their  strength.^ 
'Fhe  first  weakness  makes  the  last  more  dangerous,  for  the  narrow  part  of  the  legs 
could  sustain  a large  amount  of  dead  weight  when  they  would  break  under  cross 
strains  such  as  unsteadiness  in  the  couch  would  produce.  The  similar  couch 


^ No  end-view  of  a l)ed  of  this  precise  design 
exists,  but  cj.  Fig.  9. 

^ Used  i)y  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  the 
purposes  now  served  by  sandpaper  and  jnimice 
stone. — Blumner,  Technologic,  II,  p.  330. 

3 There  is  little  known  as  to  Greek  methods  of 
finishing  woodwork.  Professor  Blumner  states  that 
there  is  no  evidence  for  the  polishing  of  woods  with 
a regular  varnish,  although  it  would  seem  that 
something  of  the  kind  must  have  been  done;  oil  and 
wax  were  used  to  some  extent  on  small  objects. 
See  Technologic,  II,  p.  330.  Stains  were  sometimes 
employed,  for  in  the  passage  from  Demosthenes, 
already  twice  referred  to,  there  is  mention  of  /c7//a's. 
Since  the  word  occurs  in  the  singular,  it  probably 
denotes  a prepared  stain,  rather  than  the  raw 
material,  nut-galls.  It  no  doubt  jiroduced  a black 
color,  as  in  the  case  of  stains  used  in  modern  cabinet- 
work which  have  nut-galls  among  their  ingredients. 

4 See  p.  46,  n.  3. 

5 Appliques  of  strips  or  surfaces  of  Iironze  from 
chests,  chariots,  small  caskets,  and  various  other 
objects  have  been  preserved.  It  seems  therefore  pos- 
sible that  wooden  beds  were  also  sometimes  orna- 


mented in  this  way.  Yet  no  pieces  from  beds  have 
been  recognized  among  extant  bronzes.  In  Schu- 
macher, p.  48,  No.  270,  and  Plate  VI,  3,  are  bits  of 
repousse  which  show  designs  akin  to  these  capitals, 
although  too  small  to  have  been  used  on  beds.  It  is 
perhaj)s  questionable  whether  only  such  a part  of  a 
structure  as  these  capitals  would  have  been  covered 
with  metal.  Chests,  etc.,  were  apparently  covered 
over  in  their  entirety  to  give  the  effect  of  a metal 
object.  Cj.  what  is  said  on  p.  51  of  the  possible 
existence  of  beds  entirely  encased  in  metal.  One 
other  possibility  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connec- 
tion, i.  e.,  that  wooden  couches  may  sometimes  have 
been  ornamented  with  metal  appliques  in  which  the 
design  was  cut  out,  leaving  open  spaces  instead  of 
being  impressed  in  a solid  sheet.  Such  extant 
bronze  apjrliques  a jour  are  comparatively  rare, 
but  see  early  examples  in  Olympia,  Vol.  IV, 
Furtwangler,  Die  Bronzen,  Plate  XL  and  j). 
108  under  bio.  733,  and  a fifth-century  piece  given 
in  the  tailpiece  of  chap.  2. 

^ Professor  Bltimner’s  view  that  the  enlargements 
in  the  middle  strengthen  this  narrow  connecting- 
piece  is  incomprehensible  (see  p.  73,  n.  i).  The 
legs  are  no  stronger  than  their  weakest  point. 


GREEK  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


45 


shown  in  Plate  I is  therefore  not  only  less  likely,  in  consequence  of  its  wide  rails,  to 
pull  apart,  but  is  less  liable  to  break  at  the  narrow  parts  of  the  legs,  because  the 
latter  have  mainly  downward  pressures  to  endure.  In  Fig.  43  also  the  same  type 
of  bed  is  represented.  Here  the  bed  is  lower  and  the  side-rail  wider,  so  that  the  one 
serious  weakness,  the  cutting  out  of  the  legs,  does  not  seem  to  make  it  a dangerous 
construction.  The  terra-cottas  showing  this  feature  in  the  round  are  valuable 
proof  that  the  vase-paintings  on  which  these  Ijeds  occur  so  frequently  are  to  be 
trusted  in  this  particular,  and  that  the  legs  when  so  represented'  are  to  be  thought  of 


Fig.  27. — Heracles  reclining  upon  a dining-couch,  attended  by  Hermes,  Athena,  and  a serving-lad.  Vase-painting  in  the 
style  of  Andocides. — Munich. 


as  actually  cut  out.  The  Tobey  Furniture  Company  of  Chicago  was  so  kind  as  to 
undertake  at  my  request  to  test  the  constructional  feasibility  of  these  beds  as  pic- 
tured in  the  black- figured  vase-paintings.  Under  the  direction  of  the  head  of  their 
Decorating  Department,  the  late  Mr.  Twyman,  a large  working  drawing,  such  as 
would  be  sent  to  their  factory  for  execution,  was  prepared  from  the  vase-painting 
given  in  Fig.  27.  This  drawing  is  reproduced  here  in  Plate  II.  d'he  reader  has 


‘ Some  vase-paintings,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  the  vertical  lines  of  the  legs  unbroken  (here 
headpiece  of  chap,  i,  Girard,  Fig.  4388  = Over- 
deck,  Allas  der  Kunst-Mythologie,  Plate  VI,  2 and 
3;  Wien.  Vorlegebl.,  1889,  Plate  XI,  4=^Moii.  d.  /., 
Vol.  VI,  Plate  XIV),  and  the  jialmettes  and  curves 
more  or  less  carelessly  indicated  on  these  rectangular 
legs.  This  may  be  a mere  cursory  rendering  of  the 
normal  type,  or  there  may  also  have  been  couches 


with  legs  on  which  the  design  had  a surface  indica- 
tion without  being  actually  carveil  out.  Certainly 
this  last  was  the  case  at  an  early  and  at  a late  period 
in  the  history  of  this  tyjie,  for  the  early  bed  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  4 is  far  too  carefully  painted  to  be 
interpreted  otherwise  than  literally,  and  such 
related  laic  designs  as  the  terra-cotta  given  in  the 
frontispiece  clearly  do  not  have  the  straight  down- 
ward lines  of  the  legs  inlerruiited. 


46 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OE  MANUFACTURE 


thus  the  opportunity  of  seeing  what  the  ancient  picture  suggested  to  a person 
technically  trained  with  regard  to  the  strains  which  wood  will  endure  and  all  the 
details  of  modern  furniture  construction.  Important  features  of  the  drawing, 
such  as  the  depth  of  the  side-rails  and  end-rails  and  the  design  of  the  legs,  are 
guaranteed  by  the  vase-painting.  Others — the  specifications  for  the  interlacing 
and  for  the  e.xccution  of  the  ornament  in  ivory,  likewise  the  extension  as  braces  of 
the  blocks  seen  under  the  legs  in  the  vase-painting,  and  the  exact  form  of  the  rail 
serving  as  headboard — are  not  to  be  proved  directly  by  the  ancient  picture  of  Fig. 
27,  but  were  supplied  by  Mr.  Twyman  with  great  discretion  and  a high  degree  of 
probability  in  accordance  with  what  can  be  learned  otherwise  about  Greek  beds. 
The  width  of  the  narrow  part  of  the  legs  was  increased  sufficiently  in  the  working 
drawing  to  insure  against  breakage  at  that  point.  The  design  of  Fig.  27  has  thus 
been  pronounced  by  a competent  authority  not  a constructional  impossibility,  and 
the  variance  of  the  vase  decorator  from  facts  is  therefore  not  necessarily  great,  con- 
sisting, it  may  be,'  chiefly  in  an  exaggeration  of  the  narrowness  of  the  legs  at  their 
weakest  point.  This  is  not  to  assert,  however,  that  the  bed  is  a strong  and  com- 
mendable construction.  To  attempt  further  to  make  this  design  vivid  to  us  we 
may  imagine  it  executed  in  one  of  the  fine  dark  woods  mentioned  by  Theophrastus, 
terebinth  or  persea,"'  and  inlaid  with  ivory, as  is  suggested  in  the  working  drawing. 
The  two  rich  materials,  one  dark  the  other  white,  would  produce  a handsome  and 
striking  piece  of  furniture. 

A later  wooden  construction  is  reproduced  in  the  terra-cotta  of  the  frontispiece. 


' Mr.  Twyman  accepted  the  apparent  shortness 
of  the  couch  as  depicted  in  the  vase-painting.  Cj. 

PP-  37.  38- 

^ See  p.  39,  n.  6. 

3 1 prefer  to  think  of  the  pattern  in  this  case  as 
inlaid  rather  than  apjdied  to  the  supports.  Inlays 
are  more  durable,  especially  where  designs  are 
composed  of  so  many  small  separate  elements  as 
these.  Professor  Bliimner  expresses  the  opinion 
(Technologie,  II,  p.  365)  that  the  riveting  of  patterns 
cut  out  of  ivory  to  a surface  preceded  the  technic 
of  inlaying;  but  the  development  of  the  art  of  inlaying 
must  have  followed  in  very  early  times.  Inlaying 
wood  with  ivory  was  practiced  in  Egypt  in  the  New 
Empire,  as  numerous  extant  specimens  show,  and 
metal  was  very  skilfully  inlaid  in  the  Mycemcan 
period.  It  does  not  seem  possilde  that  the  art  of 
inlaying  could  have  been  so  completely  lost  as  to  have 
been  unfamiliar  to  the  Greeks  of  the  early  sixth 
century.  A priori  one  would  suppose  that  inlaying, 
when  once  understood,  would  have  supplanted  the 


older  method  for  such  open  designs  as  the  palmettes 
and  stars  on  furniture. 

Certainly,  however,  applied  ornament  continued 
long  in  use  in  the  kindred  technic  of  wood.  Cf. 
the  doweling  to  a ground  of  low-relief  carvings  a jour 
of  wood,  illustrated  in  extant  sarcophagi,  dating  as 
late  as  the  fourth  century  B.  C.,  which  have  been 
found  in  southern  Russia.  Solid  carvings  of  wood 
of  the  same  time  and  provenience  are  known,  which 
also  were  applied  to  a ground.  See  p.  47,  n.  i. 

Probably  the  veneering  of  greater  or  lesser 
surfaces  with  ivory  was  always  practiced.  With 
the  employment  of  glue  for  inlaying  perhaps  came 
in  its  use  also  for  applied  ornament.  Ivory  veneers 
consisting  of  thin  bits  which  were  fastened  by  glue 
to  a wooden  ground  came  to  supplement,  although 
not  entirely  to  banish,  the  more  primitive  method 
of  attaching  heavier  pieces  by  doweling.  See  in 
regard  to  couches  almost  completely  veneered  with 
ivory  pp.  52  and  55. 

I am  able  at  the  last  to  add  a reference  to  extant 


GREEK  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


47 


There  are  two  rails  the  long  way  of  the  bed  which  are  paneled  up  at  the  back.  The 
tapestry  represented  as  thrown  over  the  couch  and  hanging  down  at  the  ends  hides 
the  construction  there,  and  the  back  of  the  terra-cotta  is  not  finished.  The  other 
long  side  of  the  couch,  however,  must  be  thought  of  as  having  rails  corresponding 
to  those  of  the  front,  although  very  likely  not  ornamented.  The  ends  of  the  couch 
may  be  without  braces.  The  decoration  consists  of  three  kinds  of  carving.  The 
pillars  have  the  pattern  sunk  into  their  surface,  the  ornament  above  the  frame  of 
the  bed  is  in  low  relief,  and  the  panel  in  the  front  rail  has  high-relief  decoration,  in 
which  each  figure  is  to  be  understood  as  carved  out  of  a separate  piece  of  wood  and 
fastened  with  wooden  dowels  to  the  background.  The  couch  is  painted  lavishly 
with  red,  blue,  and  white,  and  has  some  gilding." 

In  the  wooden  constructions  which  have  been  thus  far  under  consideration,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  two  rude  beds,  the  material  used  for  the  legs  is  in  the  form 
of  planks.^  These  then  determine  the  character  of  the  legs,  which  exhibit  in  all 
cases  a rectangular  form,  wide  and  not  very  deep.  They  are  varied,  indeed,  by 
incisions  as  in  Fig.  27  and  Plate  I,  surface  carving  as  in  the  frontispiece,  or  a slight 
curving  of  their  outlines  as  in  Fig.  26;  but  are  all  nevertheless  elaborations  of  an 
original  plain  structure  of  planks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25. 


stars  of  ivory  from  Gordion  in  Asia  Minor,  which 
are  identical  in  form  with  those  seen  in  ancient 
pictures  of  furniture.  They  were  attached  to  a 
wooden  sarcophagus  of  the  sixth  century — this  the 
most  flourishing  period  of  the  beds  with  incised  legs 
on  which  such  stars  appear — and  from  the  cut  of 
the  bits  of  ivory  composing  them  are  thought  to 
have  been  inlaid  rather  than  applied.  See  G.  and 
A.  Korte,  Gordion:  Ergehnisse  dcr  Ansgrabung  im 
Jahre  igoo  (Jahrb.,  jiinjtes  Ergdnzungshejt),  pp. 
1 14,  1 16,  Figs.  93  and  94. 

' Analogies  to  the  technic  of  this  couch  may  be 
found  in  extant  woodwork  from  southern  Russia, 
for  example  the  painted  and  gilded  sarcophagus 
with  applied  wood-carvings  described  and  figured  in 
the  Compte-rendn,  Text  1882,  pp.  XXFII-XXV, 
supplemental  volume,  1882-88,  pp.  48-75;  vol- 
ume of  [ilates,  1882-83,  Plates  III;  IV;  V,  2, 
4-9,  14-18.  A great  deal  of  light  would  be  thrown 
on  the  subject  of  Greek  cabinet-work  of  the  fourth 
century  and  later,  and  incidentally  therefore  on 
the  technic  of  Greek  wooden  couches,  by  a study 
of  the  various  wooden  sarcofihagi  from  southern 
Russia  and  Egypt.  Some  idea  of  the  technical 
jirocesses  rejiresentefl  in  their  ornament  may  be 
gained  from  my  list  of  extant  jiieces  in  the  Jahrb., 


Vol.  XVII  (1902),  pp.  137  ff.  The  entire  absence 
of  any  traces  of  metal  appliques  is  striking.  Inlay- 
ing, wood-carving  in  low  and  in  high  relief,  out  of 
one  piece  of  wood  or  of  separate  pieces  attached  to 
a ground,  and  finally  painting  and  gilding,  are 
represented.  The  publication,  which  is  promised 
for  the  near  future,  of  the  sarcophagi  found  by  the 
German  Oricntgesellschaft  at  Abusir,  will  no  doubt 
be  a very  valuable  contribution  to  our  knowledge 
of  Greek  work  in  wood. 

^ If  the  reader  has  any  doubts  on  this  point,  let 
him  look  further  at  very  early  and  very  late  repre- 
sentations of  incised  legs  and  at  other  related  late 
designs.  The  legs  of  the  chair  of  one  of  the  statues 
from  Branchidae  in  the  British  Museum,  (;\.  II. 
Smith,  Catalogue  oj  Sculpture  in  the  Department  oj 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  \h)l.  I,  p.  20,  No.  13) 
show  a depth  of  not  more  than  lialf  their  width. 
In  late  red-figured  vase-paintings  (cj.  liere  Fig.  52) 
and  Pompeian  wall-decorations  {Real  musco  bor- 
bonico,  Vol.  V,  Plate  XVII,  and  Vol.  XI,  Plate 
XLVII)  are  seen  chairs  with  the  legs  drawn  at  such 
an  angle  that  their  comjiarative  thinness  is  evident, 
d'he  same  characteristic  is  made  clear  l)v  many 
small  bronzes  (see  tailpiece,  cha]).  4,  and  Cat.  des 
bronzes  ant.  de  la  liibl.  nat.,  p.  9,  No.  17). 


48 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OE  MANUFACTURE 


Turned  Work  Otlicr  Grcck  couclics,  howcvcr,  have  legs  made  of  Ijlocks  of  wood  rather  than 
of  planks;  these  are  the  turned  forms.  Side  by  side  with  plank  constructions  from 
the  earliest  period  are  beds  which  show  the  use  of  the  lathe. 

ddie  design  given  in  Fig.  28  is  portrayed  in  vase-paintings,  fortunately  in  both 
end-  and  side-views.  The  legs  arc  turned  each  from  a single  piece  of  wood.  The 
head-rest  seems  to  be  composed  of  the  following  parts:  (i)  turned  posts  which  are 
mortised  down  upon  the  legs;  (2)  three  framing  pieces,  a cross-rail  which  surmounts 


the  posts,  and  two  side-pieces  of  concave  curve  which  are  mortised  above  into  the 
cross-rail  of  the  head-rest  and  below  into  the  side-rails  of  the  bed;  (3)  within  this 
frame  a curved  filling  which  consists  perhaps  of  a number  of  slats  of  wood  close 
together,  mortised  into  the  uprights  at  each  side,  for  so  large  a curved  surface,  if 
carved  out  of  one  block,  would  be  heavier  than  the  appearance  of  the  couch  other- 
wise warrants  us  to  assume.’  The  entire  structure  gives  the  impression  of  being 
very  light  and  portable,  and,  as  a matter  of  fact,  in  one  vase-painting  a man  is  rep- 
resented carrying  on  his  back^  such  a bed  and  also  a table. 


^ We  have  no  reason  to  attribute  to  the  Greeks 
acquaintance  with  the  “gluing  on”  and  bending 
processes  by  means  of  which  such  a curved  rest 
would  be  produced  today.  There  seems  no  room  to 
doubt,  on  comparing  the  few  other  representations  of 
couches  of  this  style,  that  the  head-rest  is  filled  in 
solid,  although  couches  of  other  types  often  have 
bars  across  leaving  open  spaces  (see  p.  33). 


^ P.  Gardner,  Greek  T"a5C5  in  the  Ashmolcan 
Museum,  No.  282,  Plate  10.  This  may  indicate 
that  in  beds  of  the  style  in  f^uestion  the  tenons  are 
glued  into  the  mortises  and  the  beds  are  incapable 
of  being  taken  apart.  It  would  seem  as  if  heavier 
beds  must  be  constructed  so  as  to  come  apart  for 
moving,  and,  indeed,  one  interesting  proof  of  this, 
on  a red-figured  hydria  in  the  Boston  Museum  of 


GREEK  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


49 


We  may  understand  the  heavier,  more  elaborate,  turned  patterns  shown  in 
Figs.  2,  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  either  as  made  of  one  block  of  wood  or,  for  economy  in  the 
use  of  wood,  as  of  separately  turned  pieces  mortised  or  doweled  together.  Fig.  8 
shows  a normal  and  practical  turned  design,  running  a little  slender  toward  the 
bottom  perhaps,  but  not  impossibly  weak.  In  Figs.  2 and  5,  however,  there  is  the 

same  puzzling  contrast  of  very  thin 
and  very  thick  parts  which  has  been 
encountered  in  the  incised,  rectangular 
legs.  Perhaps  clumsy  and  inaccurate 
drawing  on  the  part  of  the  vase- 
painter  is  in  some  degree  responsible 
for  the  apparent  weakness  of  these 
constructions,  or,  in  the  case  in  Fig. 
2,  the  lower  heavy  members  may  be 
separate  pieces,  into  which  the  legs 
proper  are  let,  as  has  been  suggested 
for  other  couches  (Figs.  25  and  27). 
So  far  as  these  vase-paintings  are  literal  renderings  of  contemporary  beds,  that 
same  feeling  or  artistic  standard,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  leads  to  the  cutting 
out  of  the  rectangular  legs,  must  be  held  accountable  in  the  case  of  the  turned 
legs,  for  their  slenderness  of  form,  giving  them  a weak  appearance. 

The  later  turned  pattern  which  appears  in  Fig.  29  shows  only  slight  variations 
of  its  horizontal  dimensions,  and  is  eminently  practical.  The  couches  with  turned 
legs  have  occasional  ornament,  which  may  be  thought  of  as  inlaid,  carved,  or  simply 
painted.  In  the  earlier  couches  the  ornament  is  very  slight,  being  confined  to  the 
legs.  With  the  coming  in  of  wide  side-rails  it  is  increased.  Such  couches  as  the 
one  in  Fig.  29  have  many  analogies  in  chairs  having  wide  rails. " I believe  that 
these  pictures  commonly  represent  painted  furniture.  There  are  tendril  designs, 
similar  to  that  seen  in  Fig.  29  (unfortunately  not  very  clear  here)  and  elsewhere 
on  furniture,  on  some  of  the  extant  wooden  sarcophagi  from  xA.busird  these  are 
merely  painted,  and  because  of  its  comparative  cheapness  the  use  of  paint  would 
probably  be  very  common. 


Fig.  29. — -The  body  of  Archemorus  lying  in  state.  Detail  from  a 
red-figured  vase-painting. — Na pics. 


Fine  Arts  (Twenty-Eighth  Annual  Report  for  the 
Year  iQOj,  p.  71,  No.  57),  may  be  mentioned.  A 
scene  from  a satyric  drama  is  pictured,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  chorus  are  seen  bringing  the  legs  and  a 
part  of  the  frame  of  a chair  or  couch  which  had 
rectangular,  inci.sed  legs.  I have  not  seen  the  vase 
and  cannot  attcinjjt  to  say  what  the  jriece  of  furni- 
ture is,  but  if  a chair  rather  than  couch,  it  is  no  le.ss 
probable  that  also  couches  of  this  style  would  be 


commonly  taken  down  and  set  up  at  wdll.  My  atten- 
tion was  kindly  called  to  this  vase  by  Mr.  B.  H.  Hill, 
assistant  curator  of  the  Classical  Department  of  the 
Boston  Museum. 

‘ Wien.  Vorlcgcbl.,  Scrie  F,  Plates  IV,  \',  and 
VI,  2 and  in  other  late  red-figured  vase-paintings. 

^ Sec  ]).  47,  n.  I. 


50 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OE  MANUEACTURE 


Metal  Technic 

See  also  p.  44, 
n.  5. 


The  starting-point  for  the  consideration  of  metal  technic  must  be  the  two 
extant  beds.  It  has  Ijcen  stated  above  what  parts  have  had  to  be  supplied  of  wood 
and  what  are  of  metal  (p.  41).  The  legs  are  made  up  of  hollow  castings,  imitating 
turned  work,  which,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  couch  from  Priene,  have  been  retouched 
on  the  lathe.  These  were  soldered  into  one  another,  and  may  have  been  further 
strengthened  by  invisible  iron  or  wooden  rods  passing  through  the  castings  from 
the  frame  to  the  floor. ' The  wooden  frames  are  ornamented  and  protected  at  the 
corners  by  casings  of  metal.  In  the  St.  Petersburg  bed  the  metal  uprights  of  the 
rests  (except  for  the  framing,  which  has  been  lost)  are  cast  in  one  piece,  in  which 
respect  they  are  unusual.  In  the  bed  from  Priene,  as  in  many  later  examples 
(c/.  Plates  IX,  X,  XIII,  and  XIV,  and  p.  100),  the  uprights  consist  each  of  four 
parts,  cast  separately;  these  are  in  this  instance  a horse’s  head  which  forms  the 
upper  termination  of  the  upright,  a medallion  now  lost  which  was  the  lower  termi- 
nation, a frame  of  moldings  to  which  both  were  attached,  and  decoration  now  lost 
that  filled  in  the  frame  between  the  two  extremities.  The  restoration  of  the  wooden 


part  of  the  rests  following  the  curve  of  the  metal  uprights  seems  the  natural  one, 
but,  in  view  of  the  ancient  testimony  for  open  rails  on  couches  of  this  type  (see  p. 
33),  may  not  be  correct.  There  is  no  evidence  known  to  me  to  justify  the  rails 
supplied  between  the  legs  of  the  couch  from  Priene  at  about  half  their  height.  The 
earliest  of  these  extant  couches,  as  has  been  said,  dates  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  B.  C.  It  seems  impossible  to  know  when  beds  of  this  sort  were 
first  made.  The  design  is  tracealrle  on  the  monuments  in  occasional  representa- 
tions back  into  the  fifth  century,  and  other  still  earlier  turned  forms  might  con- 
ceivably have  been  executed  in  metal  castings.^ 


' C/.  the  examples  of  such  strengthening  rods 
from  beds  of  bone  found  at  Ancona  (p.  55  and  n.  9). 
Professor  Pernice  is  of  the  opinion  that  legs  made  up 
of  separate  castings  would  perhaps  be  strong  enough 
without  a metal  or  wooden  core  (Jahrh.,  Vol.  XV 
[tqoo],  Anz.,  p.  179). 

^ The  legs  of  the  extant  beds  are  translations  of 
wooden  forms  into  metal,  yet  show  metallic  influence 
in  that  the  narrow  parts  are  narrower  and  the 
spreading  parts  more  spreading  than  would  be  nat- 
ural in  wood.  If  one  attempts  to  apply  this  criterion 
to  vase-paintings,  one  finds  that  the  early  representa- 
tions of  these  couches  are  to  all  appearances  those 
of  wooden  structures.  In  P’ig.  44  it  will  be  seen 
that  there  is  less  difference  between  the  wider  and 
the  narrower  yjarts  than  one  would  expect  to  see  if 
the  intention  had  been  to  represent  a metal  couch. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  early  turned  work  discussed 
in  the  previous  paragraph  suggests  metal  in  the 
thinness  of  the  legs  at  certain  points.  If  the  couches 
represented  in  Figs.  2 and  5 had  been  of  metal  rather 


than  of  wood,  as  has  been  assumed  above,  they 
would  necessarily  have  been  hollow-cast,  for  solid 
castings  would  have  been  too  heavy  and  hammered 
work  too  weak.  It  is  not  perhaps  impossible  that 
the  Greeks  should  have  hollow-cast  the  legs  of  couches 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  An  Egyptian 
bronze  statuette  which  is  hollow-cast  exists  from 
the  New  Empire  (Erman,  Lije  in  Ancient  Egypt, 
p.  461)  and  a few  small  parts  from  furniture,  found  at 
Nineveh  are  also  cast  hollow  (Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
Vol.  II,  Chaldee  et  Assyrie,  p.  726),  and  the  passage 
in  Pliny  is  in  favor  of  the  view  (see  p.  41,  n.  2).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  greater  part  of  the  Assyrian 
metal  applied  to  furniture  was  hammered  work, 
attached  by  rivets.  It  does  not  seem  probable  that 
hollow-casting  was  practiced  in  Greece  so  early. 
Among  e.xtant  Greek  bronzes  of  early  date,  repousse 
work  prevails,  and  the  indications  are  that  the 
hollow-casting  of  statues  was  only  beginning  to  be 
practiced  in  the  archaic  period  of  Greek  sculpture. 


GREEK  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


51 


In  the  Hellenistic  period,  however,  we  are  upon  somewhat  surer  ground.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  technic  represented  in  the  two  preserved  beds  was  the 
chief,  perhaps  the  only,  method  of  using  metal  extensively  in  making  couches  at 
this  time.  I base  this  statement  mainly  on  the  prevalence  after  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander of  representations  of  beds  having  curved  rests  and  supports  made  up  largely 
or  entirely  of  turned  members.  These  far  outnumber  any  other  designs,  and 
there  are  indications  that  they  were  very  frequently  made  in  large  part  of  metaV 
like  the  extant  beds.  There  is  nothing  to  show  the  structure  of  the  couch  with 
silver  legs  upon  which  the  young  man  of  Paphus  reclined.  But  the  one  hundred 
“golden”  couches  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  which  are  described  as  cr(f)Lyy67roSe<; 
probably  were  of  the  design  shown  in  Fig.  30.^  And  if  so,  we  may  think  of  them 
perhaps  as  having  legs  made  in  small  parts  fitted  into  one  another  and  of  a baser 
metal  gilded  or  plated  with  gold,  unless  it  is  possible  that  these  parts  consisted  of 
gold  only,  sufficiently  alloyed  to  be  durable. 

It  cannot  be  proved  whether  or  not  the  Greeks  produced  beds  converted  by 
applications  to  an  appearance  of  metal,  like  the  Assyrian  furniture  known  to  us 
through  preserved  specimens.  If  such  work  was  done  at  all,  since  it  is  an  older 
technic  than  casting,  it  would  probably  have  been  more  frequent  before  than 
during  the  Hellenistic  period.  The  metal  might  have  been  of  fairly  heavy  plates 
hammered  into  shape  (forge  work),  or  of  thinner  sheets  worked  in  a cold  state  with 
designs  in  repousse.  The  Greeks  may  well  have  been  familiar  with  such  work  on 
beds.  It  seems  probable  that  the  gold  and  silver  couches  of  the  Persian  general 
Alardonius^  and  the  thirteen  kXlpwp  TroSe?  indpyvpoL  of  the  Parthenon  treasure 
were  of  wood  covered  with  plating  of  the  precious  metals.  Whether  the  Plataean 
beds  were  of  such  work,  or  like  the  couches  from  southern  Russia  and  Priene  in 
their  construction,  is  entirely  beyond  our  ken.  Besides  the  couches  with  curved 
rests,  it  would  be  idle  to  speculate  as  to  what  other  designs,  if  any,  were  thus  executed 
in  large  part  of  metal. 


' A large  class  of  these  couches  has  crouching 
sphinxes  and  other  non-turned  members  introduced 
into  the  design  of  the  legs.  Such  couches  (Fig.  30) 
do  not  look  like  purely  wooden  structures  even  in 
origin.  It  would  be  unnatural  partly  to  carve  and 
partly  to  turn  one  piece  of  wood,  and,  in  cases  where 
the  representations  are  sufficiently  good  to  permit 
any  opinion  on  this  ])oint,  the  turned  ]>arts,  too, 
seem  to  show  metallic  feeling.  Therefore,  I con- 
sider these  designs  eclectic  creations,  the  .separate 
elements  of  which  go  back  to  wooden  technic,  but 
the  jjresent  combination  of  which  was  invented  for 
work  in  metal.  At  least  one  example  of  Roman 


date  exists  of  the  design  executed  in  bronze,  i.  e., 
the  “Capitoline  Bisellium”  (see  p.  32,  n.  6). 

^ Cj.  p.  112,  n.  27. 

■3  Herod.,  IX,  80-82.  It  seems  safe  to  assume 
that  when  mention  is  made  of  a gold,  silver,  or 
ivory  couch  or  ]>art  of  a couch,  the  object  really  had 
the  appearance  of  being  of  the  material  in  (piestion, 
and  was  not  merely  inlaid  with  it  or  adorned  with 
scattered  ornaments  of  it.  Herodotus  calls  the  same 
couches  in  one  ]>aragraph  (82)  dpyvp^as; 

in  tlie  other  (80),  iirixpdffovs  Kai  irrapyvpovi^  which  last 
words  are  thought  to  refer  to  jdating  (BbcKii,  /bV 
Stiuitshaushiiltiuig  dcr  Athaicr^,  \'ol.  11,  p.  148). 


Fig.  30. — Small  tcrra-coUa. — National  Museum,  Athens. 

with  thin  l^its  of  ivory,  so  that  the  result  was  a couch  presenting  a semblance  of 
having  at  least  many  of  its  parts  of  solid  ivory.  This  was  certainly  done  later,  as 
we  shall  see,  and  it  w’ould  seem  very  probable  that,  like  the  metal  technic  exempli- 


52  MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 

Technic  of  Ivory  It  remains  only  to  mention  another  method  of  producing  the  designs  with 
curved  rests  and  turned  legs,  which  was  probably  practiced  in  the  Hellenistic 
period,  if  not  earlier.  I refer  to  the  almost  complete  veneering  of  a wooden  frame 


GREEK  PERIOD.  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


53 


fied  in  the  two  Hellenistic  couches,  which  was  very  popular  in  Roman  times,  it 
too  had  a non-Roman  origin.  It  seems  to  me  possible  that  the  following  lines  by 
Plato,  the  comic  poet  (quoted  Athen.,  II,  qSu,  />),  refer  to  couches  of  this  sort; 

Kar  ev  kRipuk  iXecjiapToiroaLP^  Kal  arpco/jiaaL  7rop(f)vpol3d7rTOi<; 

/cap  (poipiKi'ai  ^apSLa/caicnp  Koapujadp-epoi  KardKeiPTUL. 

Again,  .Rlian  {Var.  Hist.,  XII,  29),  quoting  Timams  (about  352-256  B.  C.),  says 
of  the  Agrigentines:  koI  ike<papTLva<;  KXiAa?  oXa?.  This  is  clearly  an 

exaggeration.  It  would  be  impossible  to  make  rails  of  ivory  only,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  legs  of  couches  would  be  strong  enough  unless  there  were  a combination 
of  other  material  with  the  ivory  in  their  construction.^  The  most  natural  conclusion 
is  that  the  beds  were  of  wood  extensively  veneered  and  decorated  with  carvings 
of  ivory.  3 It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the  beds  of  the  Agrigentines  referred 
to  in  the  quotation  above  were  of  the  curved-rest  type  with  legs  of  turned  patterns. 

Only  twenty  couch-makers  were  at  work  in  the  shop  belonging  to  Demos-  Centers  0}  Man 
thenes’s  father.  There  must  have  been  countless  similar  small  establishments 
throughout  the  Greek  world  to  produce  the  necessary  supply  of  such  every- 
day articles  as  beds.  This  is,  indeed,  suggested  by  a passage  in  Plato,  where  the 
philosopher  wishing  in  an  illustration  to  use  some  typical  craftsman  selects  the 
maker  of  couches.'^  By  chance  we  hear  something  of  the  furniture  industry  in 
Sparta.  The  articles  produced,  chairs  and  tables  as  well  as  beds,  were  practical, 
plain,  and  very  well  made.^  However,  while  common  Greek  couches  were  doubt- 
less locally  made,*’  there  was  probably  a certain  amount  of  traffic  in  beds.  Xeno- 


' See  following  note. 

^ In  the  Egyptian  department  of  the  Royal 
Museums  at  Berlin  are  two  furniture  legs  {Verz. 
dcr  dgypt.  Altert.,^  p.  33,  No.  14,  no.)  which,  when 
entire,  consisted  each  of  four  pieces  of  ivory  dove- 
tailed together  and  further  secured  by  thongs  of 
leather.  Their  height  is  22.5  cm.;  it  is  not  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  couches  of  the  Agrigentines 
would  have  been  so  low  as  this;  the  amount  of 
splicing  necessary  to  produce  out  of  only  ivory  a 
higher  support  renders  it  improbable  that  they 
would  have  been  sufficiently  strong  if  made  after 
the  manner  of  the  Ivgyptian  examples. 

3 This  is  the  view  held  by  M.  Girard,  who  asso- 
ciates then  with  the  Roman  beds  of  bone  to  lie  dis- 
cussed later.  See  Girard,  ji.  1020. 

■I  Rcpiib.,  X,  596/1-597/). 

s AiA  Kal  rd  irpdx^^pa  rwr  (TKevair  Kal  drayhaTa  raCra, 
KXiPTTjpes  Kal  ot(j>pOL  Kal  rpairepai,  P^XTurra  Trap'  aiirois 
idrjp.tovpyeiTo,  Kal  Kuiftaiv  6 .XaKuiviKbs  evdoKlpei  pAXuara 
TTpbs  rds  crTpardas,  &s  tfirjai.  Kpirtas,  I’l.liT.  Lyciirg.  9 = 
Gritias,  fragm.  26  f|i.  95,  ed.  Bach). 

It  is  a (juestion  how  closely  chairs,  stools,  and 


beds  were  associated  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 
Ajiparently  the  slaves  of  Demosthenes’s  father  did 
not  also  make  chairs,  or  the  fact  would  have  been 
mentioned.  The  passage  in  Plato  is  favorable  to 
the  view  that  couch-making  was  a distinct  trade 
from  chair-making.  On  the  other  hand,  beds 
very  frequently  had  the  same  sort  of  legs  as  chairs. 
The  earlier  Greek  couches,  in  fact,  are  little 
more  than  enlarged  stools  ; that  is,  they  consist 
merely  of  four  legs,  similar  to  the  four  legs  of  con- 
temporary stools,  connected  by  sufficiently  long  rails 
to  give  dimensions  for  accomodating  a person  in  a 
reclining  position.  The  addition  of  a head-rest, 
when  that  came  in,  did  not  change  the  character  of 
the  couches  otherwise.  It  seems  a jilausible  theorv, 
therefore,  that  in  all  these  cases  of  similarity  between 
the  legs  of  chairs  and  couches  the  legs  would  have 
been  made  ii|i  in  large  (luanlities  and  in  various  sizes, 
and  then  have  been  put  together  with  an  addition  of 
rails,  interlacing,  etc.,  as  chairs,  stools,  or  beds  in  the 
same  or  in  another  workslio|i.  Turned  legs  in  jiarticu- 
lar  might  well  have  been  jiroduced  in  one  establish- 
ment and  the  cabinet-work  proper  of  .setting  the 
])iecesof  furniture  togetherliave  been  done  in  another. 


54 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


ROMAN 

General  Statement 
in  Regard  to 
Material  and 
Technic 


])hon  saw  some  couches  in  the  region  of  Salmydessus  on  the  Black  Sea  which  were 
part  of  the  wreckage  of  Greek  merchant  ships/  We  learn  from  Critias^  that  two 
kinds  of  beds  were  especially  famous  in  the  fifth  century — those  of  Miletus  and  those 
of  Chios.  A certain  number  of  both  styles  was  included  in  the  Parthenon  treas- 
ured there  were  also  some  Milesian  beds  in  the  household  property  of  Alcibiades.'* 
If  these  were  of  a single  distinct  design  and  the  design  is  known  to  us,  it  is  }>rob- 
ablv  the  one  exhibiting  deeply  incised,  rectangular  legs.^ 

The  earlier  couches  of  Roman  date  apparently  followed  very  closely  Hellen- 
istic precedents  in  material  and  technic  as  in  design.  Among  them  were  couches 
of  the  costliest  materials,  some  imported,  others  suggested  by  foreign  models,^ 
but  excelling,  it  may  be,  even  anything  the  Hellenistic  world  had  produced  in  the 
extravagance  of  rich  materials  which  they  exhibited.  With  the  development 


' Atiah.,  VII,  5,  14. 

^ I,  5.  Critias  (fragm.  i,  1.  5,  p.  31,  ed.  Bach  = 
Athen.,  I,  286),  mentioning  various  localities  and 
the  things  for  which  they  were  famous,  says: 
cvvalov  5^  Xlxoos  (e'foxa)  KaXXos 
iMiXijros  re  Xi'os  t’,  eVaXos  ttoXis  OIvottiiovos. 
There  is  yet  another  mention  by  Critias  of  these 
beds  in  a fragment  from  his  “Constitution  of  Lace- 
dtemon”  (Athen.,  XI,  486?  = Critias,  fragm.  28,  p. 
95,  ed.  Bach). 

K\irrj  'SU'KrjaiovpyrjS  Kal  d'uppos  iSUXriaiovpyris,  nXirr] 
Xiovpyr)S  ral  rpairc^a  "P-qytoepyTji. 

3 Among  the  accessions  of  the  year  434-3  to  the 
treasures  kept  in  the  Parthenon  are  eiglu  K\irai 
'KiovpyeA  and  ten  KXiuai  'Mi'K-qaiovpycts,  and  these  items 
continue  to  appear  in  succeeding  lists  until  after  the 
archonship  of  Euclides,  when  the  Chian  lieds  disap- 
pear and  the  number  of  Milesian  beds  is  increased 
to  si.xteen.  Again,  after  the  year  385-4  the  Vldesian 
beds  are  reduced  to  ten,  and  are  described  as  being 
in  need  of  repair. 

4 Dittenberger,  Sylloge  Inscripliomim  Grae- 
cariun,^  No.  44  and  Wilhelm,  Jahresh.,  Vol.  VI 
(1903),  pp.  236  ff. 

5 Rayet,  Monuments  antiques,  article  “Tom- 
beau  de  Xanthos,  dit  monument  des  harpyes,”  p. 
4,  discussing  the  Harpy  monument,  calls  the  chair 
with  rectangular  legs  and  incisions  Vlilesian,  and 
the  chair  with  turned  legs  Chian,  d'here  is  no 
defense  of  the  view  in  the  passage  referred  to  nor 
in  any  other  of  Rayet’s  writings  known  to  me. 
Professor  Benndorf  {Gjolbasclii  - Trysa,  p.  96), 


and  Professor  Petersen  following  him  (Ara  Pacts 
Aiigustae,  p.  67,  n.  i),  also  associate  the  Milesian 
furniture  with  the  style  having  rectangular  legs 
with  incisions,  but  make  no  mention  of  Chian 
beds.  Unless  these  authorities  have  evidence 
which  has  escaped  my  notice,  the  identification, 
although  a plausible  hypothesis,  cannot  be  called 
obvious  and  indisputable.  There  is  a fairly  large 
stock  of  couch  and  chair  representations  of  the 
fifth  century,  a greater  variety  really  than  for  any 
other  period,  and  literary  evidence  shows  that 
Chian  and  Milesian  furniture  were  especially 
famous  in  the  fifth  century.  There  is  then  a pre- 
sumption that  these  styles  would  be  included 
in  the  couch  representations  on  the  monuments. 
The  elegance  and  richness  of  the  couch  with  rec- 
tangular legs  and  incisions  distinguish  it  from  all 
others  as  that  most  likely  to  have  been  highly 
valued  and  the  character  of  the  design  suggesting 
Asiatic  origin  (elaborated  in  the  chapter  on  “Style” 
p.  73,  n.  3)  is  favorable  to  the  identification.  Unfor- 
tunately there  is  no  means  of  knowing  whether 
Chian  and  Vlilesian  furniture  were  alike  or  not. 
If  they  differed  in  design,  as  Rayet  thought,  the  only 
reason  that  I can  see  for  calling  the  important  style 
with  rectangular  legs  having  incisions  Vlilesian 
rather  than  Chian  lies  in  the  greater  prominence  of 
Vliletus  commercially.  At  least  the  fact  that 
Milesian  stools  as  well  as  beds  are  mentioned  in 
literature,  whereas  we  hear  only  of  Chian  beds,  it 
seems  to  me,  is  very  likely  to  be  accidental,  and  not 
therefore  significant  on  this  point. 

* Plin.,  N.  H.,  XXXIII,  144. 


ROMAN  PERIOD.  MATERIALS 


55 


later  of  a back,  the  Roman  couch  became  a much  more  complicated  structure, 
comparable  technically  with  modern  high-backed  sofas.  The  production  of 
couches  of  luxury  seems  to  have  increased  rather  than  abated  in  the  late  Roman 
period. 

Wood  not  combined  with  other  materials  no  doubt  continued  to  be  used  con- 
siderably for  common  couches.'  Costly  woods,  probably  in  the  form  of  veneers, 
were  not  unusual  in  expensive  couches,  although  not  employed  to  such  an  extreme 
extent  as  for  tables.^  Wood  was  also  used  for  some  or  all  of  the  constructional 
parts  of  couches  whose  beauty  and  richness  depended  upon  other  materials. 

If  we  may  trust  negative  evidence,  ivory  had  little  use  in  the  Roman  period  as 
an  accessory  material,^  that  is  to  say,  for  inlays  or  otherwise  in  small  quantities. 
But  so-called  “ivory”  couches,  those,  in  all  probability,  which  were  veneered  com- 
pletely or  nearly  so  with  ivory  were  very  popular.  ^ The  bones  of  horses  and  of 
other  animals  were  employed  as  a cheap  substitute  for  ivory. 

The  use  of  tortoise  shell  on  couches  seems  to  have  begun  about  loo  B.  C.^ 
Whether  the  introducer  of  the  process  learned  it  from  the  eastern  world  or  some- 
one in  Italy  invented  it  does  not  appear.  In  two  passages  (the  second  derived, 
however,  from  the  first)  it  is  implied  that  shell  for  this  purpose  was  obtained  from 
India.''  A large  part  of  the  surface  of  the  structures  must  have  been  covered  to 
warrant  their  being  regularly  called  “tortoise-shell”  couches.^  Silver^  gold,  and 
jewels  were  at  times  combined  with  tortoise  shell,*  but  always,  as  far  as  literary 
evidence  shows,  as  secondary  materials. 

Iron  was  sometimes  used  as  an  invisible  support  within  the  legs  of  couches,® 
and  possibly  was  otherwise  employed  in  their  manufacture. 


' Sen.,  Ep.,  17,  12.  Willow  and  maple  (prob- 
ably one  of  the  commoner  sorts)  are  referred  to  by 
Ov.,  Met.,  VIII,  656-59,  and  Ep.  ex  Ponto,  III, 
3,  14.  The  couches  which  appear  on  the  gravestones 
of  Roman  soldiers  from  the  second  century  on  look 
for  the  most  part  to  be  entirely  of  wood. 

^ Mart.,  XIV,  85,  and  Rers.,  I,  52,  53.  Besides 
the  fact  that  tables  are  much  more  frequently 
mentioned  in  literature,  it  is  evident  from  Mart., 
IX,  59,  9,  that  it  was  not  considered  necessary  for 
the  dining-couches  and  tables  to  match  in  material. 

3 d'here  are  no  extant  sj)ecimens  of  ivory  inlays, 
although  inlaid  work  in  metal  of  Roman  date  is 
not  rare,  and  there  are  few  passages  which  could 
imply  a sjjaring  use  of  ivory.  See,  however,  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria,  Paedag.,  II,  3,  p.  188,  where 
among  things  one  should  not  desire  couches  with 
silver  legs,  further  adorned  with  ivory,  are  mentioned. 


+ Hor.,  Sat.,  II,  6,  103,  speaks  of  couches  of 
ivory  among  the  objects  to  be  seen  in  a rich  man’s 
house;  ivory  couches  were  used  at  a dinner  given  to 
the  pontiffs  in  the  time  of  Julius  C;esar  (Macrob., 
Saturn.,  Ill,  13,  ii);  Julius  Cssar’s  funeral  couch 
was  of  ivory  (Suet.,  I id.,  84). 

5 Plin.,  N.  H.,  IX,  39;  XXXIII,  144. 

Lucian,  Asin.,  621,  and  Apul.,  Met.,  X,  34. 

’’  See  the  long  list  of  references  given  by  Malt, 
col.  371.  d'here  are  no  jiassages  known  to  me  which 
imply  a sparing  use  of  it  as  ornament. 

^Digest,  XXXII,  TOO,  4;  Lucian,  Asin.,  621; 
Mart.,  XII,  66,  5. 

Sec  Brizio,  p.  451,  Pig.  18. 

1 know  no  literary  evidence  for  the  use  of  iron 
in  the  construction  of  beds  during  the  Roman  jieriod. 
The  Musco  delle  Terme  in  Rome  and  the  IMuscA' 


Materials 

Wood 


Ivory  and  Bone 


Tortoise  .Shell 


Iron 


56 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


Bronze 


The  Precious 
Metals 


Jewels 

Technic 
Early  Period 


Bronze  Couches 


Couches  of  Bone 


There  are  a few  references  in  literature"  to  lironze  beds,  but  the  many  sur- 
viving ])arts  of  beds  with  l^ronze  attachments  are  Ijctter  testimony  to  the  large  use 
of  the  ]>roduct  in  this  way.  It  was  usually  enriched  with  inlays  of  silver  and  often 
also  with  inlays  of  copper. 

“Gold”  and  “silver”  couches  came  into  notice  in  Italy  about  the  same  time 
with  those  of  tortoise  shell. ^ Yet  they  did  not  jicrhaps  become  very  general  articles 
of  luxury  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  cra.^  The  terms  “gold”  and 
“silver”  thus  used  arc  probably  to  be  understood  in  a way  analogous  to  “ivory” 
and  “tortoise  shell;”  that  is,  as  denoting  couches  whose  visible  surfaces  were 
nearly  or  quite  covered  with  plating  or  washes  of  the  precious  metals.-"  After  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century  A.  D.  there  were  instances  of  couches  of  solid 
silver.^  Both  silver  and  gold  found  constant  subsidiary  use  in  enriching  other 
materials. 

Finally  couches  were  even  adorned  with  jewels.^ 

The  technic  of  two  classes  of  early  Roman  couches  is  illustrated  in  extant 
specimens.  I refer  to  the  various  bronze  and  bone  parts  of  couches  scattered  in 
the  museums  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Hitherto  unpublished  specimens 
in  bronze  are  given  in  Plates  VIII-XIX,  and  details  in  regard  to  them  in  Section  I 
of  the  Supplementary  Matter.  For  the  general  facts  as  to  the  construction  of  these 
beds  see  under  the  Greek  ])eriod,  pp.  41  and  50. 

Only  recently  has  the  construction  of  couches  of  bone  been  better  under- 
stood. The  first  specimen  to  attract  attention,  one  found  at  Norcia,  was  put 
together  by  Pasqui  without  reference  to  other  monumental  evidence.^  The  bed 
from  Orvieto  which  is  published  here  (Plates  XX-XXVI)  was  apparently  restored 


de  St.  Germain  possess  folding  stools  of  iron,  and 
there  is  another  in  j:)rivate  possession  in  England 
(formerly  in  the  Forman  Collection;  see  the  Sale 
Catalogue,  p.  232).  Since  these  other  articles  of 
furniture  were  made  of  iron,  it  is  not  impossible 
that  iron  was  sometimes  used  for  the  parts  of  Ijeds. 

' E.  g.,  Juv.,  XI,  98;  Plin.,  N.  II;  XXXIV, 
14;  Liv.,  XXXIX,  6. 

^ Plin.,  N.  II.,  XXXIIl,  144. 

3 Ihid.,  146,  and  for  a public  banriuet  in  the 
reign  of  Caligula,  not  ivory  (c/.  p.  55,  n.  4),  but 
silver,  couches  were  used  (Suet.,  Calig.,  32). 

4 From  the  last  passage  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding note  it  is  clear  that  silver  was  sometimes  in 
the  form  of  removable  plates.  C/.  on  this  point 
also  Mart.,  IX,  22,  6.  Mart.,  VIII,  33,  6,  sug- 
gests exceedingly  thin  plating  or  foil.  In  the 


gold-room  of  the  Louvre  is  a folding  stool  from 
Ostia,  of  iron  plated  with  silver.  This  suggests 
that  the  Roman  silver  couches  like  the  bone  ones 
may  at  least  have  had  an  iron  core  in  the  legs. 

5  Digest,  XXXllI,  10,  9,  i;  Hist.  Aug.  Vit.  Elag., 
20,  4. 

* See  the  end  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  also 
under  “tortoise  shell.” 

7 Lucan, X.  310,  i26;VI.art.,  XII,  66,  5;  Digest, 
XXXIIl,  10,  3,  3;  possibly  also  Sen.,  Ep.,  no,  12. 

* Me  himself  states  this  (Pasqui,  col.  236): 
“Proposta  la  ricostruzione  di  quel  letto  ....  si 
pensb  risolvere  il  problema  coll’esame  stesso  dei 
frammenti  e sopratutto  coi  rapporti  di  dimensione, 
piuttosto  che  cogli  esempi  di  klinai  e di  letti  funebri, 
che  pitture  parietali  e vasculari,  sculture  e ceramiche 
decorate  di  rilievi  in  copia  grandissima  ci  presen- 
tano.” 


ROMAN  PERIOD.  TECHNIC 


57 


in  accordance  with  the  one  from  Norcia."  In  1902  in  tombs  near  Ancona  remains 
of  beds  of  bone  were  found  and  were  recognized  by  Signor  Brizio,  who  published 
them/  to  be  of  the  design  rendered  familiar  by  the  Pompeian  beds  of  wood  com- 
bined with  bronze.  One  of  these  couches  has  been  put  together:  the  restoration 
appears  to  me  ciuestionable  in  only  one  important  point;  namely  that  the  legs  at 
about  half  their  height  have  been  braced  by  rails  on  all  sides  of  the  bed.^  Signor 
Brizio  refers  to  the  Norcia  bed,  without,  however,  pointing  out  (if  he  recognized  the 
fact)  that  it  ought  to  be  restored  like  the  one  from  Ancona,  after  the  design  of  the 
Pompeian  couch.  The  Norcia  bed  is  fully  discussed  by  Dr.  Graeven,'*  who  gives 
a photographic  view  of  it  and  publishes  with  very  instructive  comments  a large 
number  of  other  fragments  from  beds  of  bone  or  ivory.  He  points  out  that  the 
medallions,  and  the  moldings  of  bone  framing  them  in  their  present  situation  on  the 
rails  of  the  bed  (cf.  Plate  XX),  are  parts  of  f ulcra  and  that  the  slant  given  to  the  frame 
from  the  bottom  outward  is  unwarranted;  he  accepts,  however,  the  width  of  the 
rails  and  the  placing  of  the  lions’  masks  at  the  corners.  This  last  seems  to  me  open 
to  grave  doubts.  The  narrow  rails  of  the  restored  Ancona  bed  are  made  to  con- 
form to  the  Pompeian  design.  The  greater  width  of  those  of  the  Norcia  and 
Orvieto  couches  is  determined  by  the  dimensions  of  the  lions’  masks  and  the  hgures 
in  relief  (see  Plate  XX)  which  it  is  assumed  must  have  adorned  them.  But  it  is 
strange  that  in  general  these  couches  should  have  conformed  to  the  type  which  seems 
to  have  been  the  prevailing  one  in  the  late  Greek  and  early  Roman  })eriods,  and  yet 
differ  from  it  in  this  one  important  particular.  The  bed  published  in  the  frontis- 
piece has,  indeed,  a wide  rail  with  high  relief  ornaments,  but  it  is  of  an  entirely 
different  type.  In  all  the  numerous  representations  of  beds  with  turned  legs  and 
curved  fulcra  there  is  not  a single  one  known  to  me  showing  wide  rails  and  orna- 
ment in  relief,  nor  is  one  to  be  found  among  the  bronze  survivals  from  such  couches. 
Therefore,  until  monumental  evidence  in  sujjport  of  such  a restoration  is  found, 
it  appears  to  me  safer  to  doubt  the  attribution  of  a given  bone  carving  to  a given 


^ Reference  is  made  in  the  documents  accom- 
panying this  bed  when  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  to  the  bed  from 
Norcia  as  the  one  other  existent  specimen  of  the 
kind.  Further,  a conijKirison  of  the  two  shows 
many  jwints  of  agreement. 

^ Rrizio,  pp.  445  ff.;  described  briefly,  Jahi'h., 
Vol.  XVIII  (1903),  A)iz.,  p.  89. 

3 'Fhese,  the  restorer  thinks,  are  a constructional 
necessity  because  of  the  great  height  (67  cm.)  of 
the  couches.  ('File  height  is  fixed  by  llie  length  of 
the  iron  rods  which  formed  the  strength  of  the  legs, 
Hkizuj,  p.  456.)  But  the  couches  may  have  been 


manufactured  merely  for  the  tomb,  as  Pasqui  sug- 
gested in  the  case  of  the  Norcia  couch  (Pasqui, 
col.  241 ) and  may  not  have  been  very  firm.  F’urlhcr, 
this  is  not  an  isolated  instance;  on  the  contrary, 
as  has  been  seen,  a height  so  great  as  apjiarently  to 
involve  unsteadiness  is  frequent  in  ancient  couches, 
ami  the  jiroblem  was  not  solved,  so  far  as  monu- 
mental evidence  shows,  by  the  use  of  rails  half  way 
between  the  floor  and  the  frame  of  the  bed  {rj. 
p]).  43  ff.).  'Phe  braces  of  the  “bi.sellia”  tiled  by 
Signor  Brizio  in  siqipoil  of  his  restoration  are  them- 
selves restorations. 


Grakven,  pp.  82  IT. 


58 


MATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


couch  when  no  other  place  can  l^e  found  for  it  than  on  the  rail.  Various  objects 
were  buried  in  tombs,  the  use  of  Ijone  was  not  conhned  to  beds,  and  medallions  and 
masks  ornamented  other  structures  than  beds.  It  is  not  essential,  therefore,  to 
assume  that  e\'ery  carving  in  bone  found  in  a tomb  in  which  there  was  a bed  of 
bone  belonged  on  that  bed.  In  the  case  of  the  couch  from  Orvieto,  however,  the 
relief  carvings  may  Ije  otherwise  disposed  of,  in  a way  suggested  by  Dr.  Graeven 
for  similar  carvings  of  which  he  gives  a photograph.'  They  probably  ornamented 
the  legs  of  the  couch.  For  this  good  analogies  may  be  cited  on  ancient  monu- 
ments. The  wadter  just  named  refers  to  the  publication  by  Dr.  Hauser^  of  a 
marble  chair-leg  of  turned  members,  interrupted  l)y  a circlet  of  hgures  in  relief; 
there  are  also  instances  on  Pompeian  wall-paintings.^  This  is  the  more  probable 
in  the  case  of  the  Orvieto  couch  l^ecause  the  legs  are  otherwise  quite  jjlain,  whereas 
the  couch  from  Norcia  has  members  adorned  with  foliage  patterns.  Further, 
the  carvings  on  the  bed  from  Orvieto  are  so  curved  that  they  must  have  surrounded 
some  circular  object,  and,  if  on  the  bed  at  all,  they  then  necessarily  decorated  the 
legs.  It  is  inconceivable  that  they  should  have  been  left,  even  in  a provincial, 
crude  art,  so  unworkmanlike  as  they  now  a])})ear  with  interstices  between  the 
panels.  An  examination  of  the  present  structure  proves,  if  it  is  not  sufficiently 
evident  from  Plates  XXIV  and  XXV,  that  it  is  impossible  to  adjust  these  carvings 
neatly  to  a corner  j^osition. 

Some  of  the  medallions  of  bone  published  by  Dr.  Graeven,  like  those  of  the 
Orvieto  couch,  have  considerable  projection;  others  are  in  low  relief. The  same 
writer  has  recognized  a low-relief  carving  in  bone  belonging  to  the  curve  between 
the  extremities^  of  an  upright  of  a fulcrum  and  upper  end-pieces  of  uprights,  which, 
unlike  the  horses’  heads  of  the  Ancona  couch  and  their  bronze  prototypes,  are  in 
low  relief.''  That  these  last  also  go  back  to  bronze  models  seems  clear,  as  is  pointed 
out,  from  the  fact  that  they  represent  aquatic  birds,  with  heads  turned  about  in  a 
position  as  nearly  like  that  of  the  bronze  heads  in  the  round  as  it  is  possible  to  get 
in  relief,  and,  what  is  more  significant,  that  they  exhibit  the  same  double-curved 
termination^  where  the  neck  stops  as  is  found  in  bronzes.  This  extant  work  in 
bone  and  bronze  has  the  additional  interest  of  suggesting  how  more  expensive 
couches  may  have  been  made.  I am  convinced  that  all  speculations  as  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  elegant  Roman  couches  of  the  first  century  before  and  the  first 
century  after  Christ  must  reckon  with  the  prevalence  of  the  type  of  couch  known 

' Graeven,  pp.  90  ff.,  Phot.  55.  * Graeven,  Phot.  33,  34,  37. 

Jahrb.,  Vol.  IV  (1889),  pp.  255  ff.  5 Ibid.,  Phot.  59. 

3 Dr.  Hauser  cites  Raoul  Rociiette,  Peintures  ^ Ibid.,  Phot.  31  and  61. 

de  Pom  pci,  Plate  X.  There  is  another  example  in  the  , explanation  of  this  form  is  offered,  p.  86. 
house  of  the  Vettii:  Brogi,  photograph  No.  11,203. 


ROMAN  PERIOD.  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


59 


Fig,  31. — Roman  Sarcophagus  from  Syria. — Constantinople. 


6o 


lilATERIALS,  TECHNIC,  AND  CENTERS  OE  MANUEACTURE 


Late  Period 


Places  oj  Mauii- 
jactiire 


to  US  in  preserved  specimens.  There  have  been  no  certain  couch  remains  recog- 
nized which  are  irreconcilable  with  the  design  having  turned  legs  and  curved 
jiiJcra  and  the  variety  and  number  of  existent  bone  and  bronze  parts  of  couches 
fitting  into  the  general  design  in  question  are  abundant  positive  evidence  of  its 
prevalence.  Accordingly,  I should  imagine  the  tortoise-shell  couches  to  have  had 
a frame  of  wood,  strengthening-rods  of  iron  through  the  legs,  and  a veneering  of 
the  shell,  the  ornaments  of  the  jiilcra  being  treated  flatly,  like  some  of  the  ornaments 
in  bone  mentioned  above.  It  seems  ])articularly  reasonable  to  suppose  that  bone 
was  a cheap  substitute  for  ivory,  and  that  the  provincial  structures  of  bone  repro- 
duce for  us  in  a crude  way  the  beautiful  ivory  beds  of  the  wealthier  centers  of 
civilization.  Nor  do  I believe  that  the  silver  and  gold  couches  departed  very  far 
in  their  construction  from  the  models  afforded  by  the  commoner  couches  of  wood 
with  bronze  attachments.  Varro’  indeed  implies  variety  in  the  size  and  shape  of 
couches  of  his  day,  but  not  greater  than  is  secured  in  the  different  renderings  of 
the  design  in  question. 

The  changes  in  form  which  gradually  took  place  in  the  first  century  A.  D. — 
that  is,  the  increase  in  the  height  of  the  fulcra  and  the  upright  position  given  to 
them — prepared  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  the  back.  Whatever  we  may 
think  of  the  comparative  aesthetic  merits  of  the  Greeco-Roman  couch  just  under 
consideration  and  the  high-backed  Roman  type,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
latter  is  a much  more  developed  construction.  On  Plate  XXVII  is  given  a working 
drawing  to  be  executed  entirely  in  wood,  which  was  prepared  on  the  basis  of  the 
couch  pictured  in  Fig.  31.^  There  is  much  more  that  is  conjectural  than  in  the 
drawing  for  the  Greek  couch  (Plate  II),  but  it  is  an  interesting  attempt  to  divine 
the  Roman  workman’s  methods.  It  seems  to  me  probable  that  in  the  couch  rep- 
resented in  Plate  XXVIII  the  legs,  the  panels  at  the  corners  of  the  rails,  and  the 
uprights  in  dolphin  form  of  the  headboard  and  footboard  were  of  metal. 

It  remains  only  to  say  the  little  that  is  possible  on  the  subject  of  the  places 
of  manufacture.  Delian  and  Punic  couches  were  in  use  in  Italy  in  the  last  century 
before  Christ  and  gave  rise  to  imitations  the  Punic  couches  are  described  by 
Isidorus  as  small  and  low.-*  Vlany  of  the  existent  parts  of  couches  give  evidence 
in  style  of  having  come  from  the  same  factory;  for  instance,  many  of  the  mules’ 
heads  crowned  with  ivy  agree  closely  enough  to  imply  a common  origin.  But 
nothing  definite  is  known  about  any  of  these  Italian  centers  of  manufacture.  Brunn 
recognized  the  provincial  character  of  the  beds  of  bone.  Pasqui  thought  that  Norcia 

' L.  L.,  VIII,  31,  32.  ^ See  p.  54,  n.  6. 

^ This  I owe  likewise  to  the  courtesy  of  the  ^ Isid.,  Orig.  XX,  11,3,  says;  “Punicani  lecti 
Tobey  Furniture  Company  and  the  careful  over-  parvi,  et  humiles,  primum  a Carthagine  advecti,  et 
sight  of  Mr.  Twyman.  Cj.  p.  45.  inde  nominati.  Cf.  also  Cic.,  Pro  Mur.,  36,  75. 


COUCH-MAKERS 


6i 


might  have  been  the  center  of  their  production/  The  discovery  of  similar  work  at 
Ancona  and  Orvieto  suggests  that  they  were  made  in  many  places.  Idbyan  couches^ 
were  probably  not  a class  distinct  from  Punic. 

The  names  of  two  couch-makers  of  the  first  century  A.  D.  are  known^  who 
were  famous  for  the  humbleness  of  their  products;  these  are  Archias  and  Soterichus. 
Peitenus  was  a couch-maker  of  one  of  the  Greek  islands  in  Roman  times. One 
would  like  to  know  more  about  Carvilius  Polliod  the  introducer  of  rich  couches  of 
gold,  silver,  and  tortoise  shell — whether  he  was  concerned  commercially  in  these 
innovations,  or  whether  he  was  merely  a wealthy  man  who  set  the  fashion  for 
others. 


' Pasqui,  col.  242;  cj.  p.  108. 

Verg.,  Cir.,  440. 

3 Hor.,  Ep.,  I,  5,  i;  Sen.,  fragm.  114. 

I.  G.,  II,  2135  and  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  nationale 
des  Antiquaires  de  France,  1900,  Michon,  “StMe 
de  Beitenos  Hermes.”  Miss  Mary  B.  Peaks  has 
kindly  brought  to  my  notice  several  other  couch- 
makers  whose  names  I am  able  to  add  in  the  proof. 


These  are:  Rhesus,  slave  of  Caninius  {Corpus  In- 
scriptionum  Lalinariim,  VI,  2,  7988),  the  slave 
Romanus  (op.  cit.,  VI,  2,  9503),  the  freedman 
Lucius  Hostilius  Amphio  {op.  cil.,Vl,  2,  7882),  and 
probably  Gains  Parc  ....  {op.  cit.,  XI,  2,  5439). 
Two  of  these  artisans  seem  to  have  been  Greeks. 
C/.  p.  89. 

.5  See  p.  55,  n.  5. 


CHAPTER  III 


INTERLACED  FILLING  OF  COUCH  FRAMES 

An  interwoven  filling  for  couch  frames  as  for  chair  frames  was  common  in 
antir(uity.  Actual  remains  of  plaiting  in  various  materials  have  been  preserved  in 
Egypt,  dating  from  at  least  as  early  as  the  New  Empire  down  to  the  Graeco-Roman 
period.  ^ It  is  highly  probable  that  the  strap  of  red  leather  mentioned  in  the  Homeric 
description  of  the  bed  of  Odysseus^  was  for  this  purpose.  The  earliest  Greek  couch 
representations,  those  on  vases  of  the  Dipylon  class,  occasionally  show  a plaiting  (see 
headpiece  of  this  chapter).^  There  is  literary  and  monumental  evidence  sufficient 
to  jjrove  that  such  interlaced  filling  was  common  in  the  historical  Greek  and  Roman 
periods.'*  That  it  was  the  only  filling  used  is  perhaps  too  much  to  assert;  yet  I 
cannot  see  where  Professor  Bliimner  gets  the  information:  “auf  die  Gurte,  deren 
Stelle  mitunter  auch  ein  jestes  Brett  vertritt,  wurden  die  Matratzen  oder  Polster 
gelegt.”-''  It  would  seem  on  the  face  of  it  probable  that  a flexible  interlacing  would 


' Almost  every  larf^e  collection  of  Egyptian 
antiejuities  has  one  or  more  pieces  of  furniture 
showing  the  traces  of  attachment  to  the  frame  if 
not  bits  of  the  actual  plaiting.  But  few  of  these 
remains  of  j^laiting  are  published.  See,  however, 
Verz.  der  dgypi.  Allertd,  of  the  Royal  Vluseums  at 
Berlin,  pp.  194  ff.,  and  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902), 
p.  132,  Fig.  7. 

^ See  p.  39,  n.  i. 

3 See  also  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr., 
Plate  l=Mou.  d.  Vol.  IX,  Plates  XXXIX  and 
XL. 

■t  Herod.,  IX,  118;  Thug.,  IV,  48,  3;  C.yto,  De 
Agric.,  10,  5;  Cic.,  De  Div.,  II,  134;  Petron.,  97; 
Poll.,  X,  36.  The  well-known  low  bronze  bed  in 
the  Etruscan  museum  of  the  Vatican  (Museo 
etriisco  gregoriano,  I,  Plate  XV  =Baumeister,  Vol. 
I,  Fig.  326  = Helbig,  FiihreD,  Vol.  II,  p.  360,  No. 


1333)  presents  a full-sized  example  of  a bed-lacing 
of  early  date.  One  gets  occasionally  experiments 
in  perspective  whereby  the  bottoms  of  chairs  appear 
(Arch.  Zeil.,  1869,  Plate  17;  ibid.,  1885,  Plate  15; 
Furtwangler-Reichhold,  Plate  20;  a coin  of 
Macedonia,  Head,  A Guide  to  the  Principal  Gold 
and  Silver  Coins  0}  the  Ancients,  Plate  65,  8).  The 
unique  bed  of  Procrustes  (Reinach,  Peintures  de 
vases  antiques,  Millingen,  Plate  9 = Baumeister, 
Vol.  I,  Fig.  327)  also  has  slight  indications  of  cross- 
ing strands  and  their  attachment  to  the  rails.  An 
unpublished,  small  leaden  bed,  found  with  other 
toys  in  a child’s  grave  in  Eretria,  and  now  in  the 
Louvre,  and  the  small  terra-cotta  from  Egypt 
(Plate  Vila,  but  unfortunately  not  showing  the  top 
in  the  illustration),  both  have  their  interlacing 
indicated.  See  other  examples  mentioned  farther 
on  in  this  chapter. 

5 Article  Betten  in  Baumeister,  p.  312. 


62 


MATERIALS  USED 


63 


have  been  preferred  on  all  pieces  of  furniture  for  reclining,  as  affording  greater 
comfort/  Perhaps  flexible  fillings  of  material  in  large  pieces,  instead  of  in  narrow 
interwoven  strips,  were  sometimes  used,  but  there  is  no  evidence  known  to  me 
for  this. 

One  passage  in  Herodotus  (TX,  118)  points  to  leather  as  a material  which  was  Materials  whkh 
interwoven  in  couch  frames,  since  besieged  people  on  the  verge  of  starvation  boil  interwoven 

the  thongs,  as  we  may  here  translate  rovot,  of  their  beds  for  food.  Horse’s  hide 
was  used  for  this  purpose,  if  Dr.  Wilhelm’s  surmise  in  regard  to  k(1]\oj  iirireLco  Suo, 
occurring  in  the  lists  of  the  property  of  the  Hermocopidae,  is  correct.^  The  word 
lora,  somewhat  uncommon,  however,  in  application  to  beds,  seems  to  have  been 
used  only  of  leather.  In  the  inventory  given  by  Cato^  of  furnishings  necessary  to 
run  a farm  of  240  iitgera,  the  items  lediis  in  ciihiculo  /,  lecti  laris  suhtenti  HH, 
lecti  III  occur.  Beds  stretched  with  lora  are  to  be  distinguished  from  other  beds, 
and  in  the  absence  of  decisive  evidence  for  anything  else  than  an  interlaced  filling, 
the  difference  would  seem  to  have  been  in  the  material  stretched;  the  other  beds 
might  well  have  been  corded.  SrrdpTaL,  from  its  derivation,'^  would  probably 
have  been  applied  only  to  vegetable  materials.  The  opinion  of  Suidas  in  regard  to 
other  Greek  terms  is  not  to  be  ignored.  He  defines  KeipLa  as  eI8o?  {&J079  eX  o-^ot- 
vLO)v,  TTapeoLKoq  Ip-dpTL  p SeerpovexL  ra?  /eXtVa?,  and  of  its  diminutive  says,  Keipiov 
8e  TO  a"xoLVLOv.  Under  toco?  he  gives  t6vo<;  kol  tov  Kpa^/^drov  rd  (X')(OLVLa. 

Pollux  cjuotes  (X,  64),  apropos  of  athletics,  a fragment  of  Tlschylus,  Xtea  8e, 

TTLcrcra  K^poXivov  paKpol  t6vol\  hence  Tovoq  was  a comprehensive  term  which 
included  cords  of  flax,  or  of  whatever  species  of  reeds  or  rushes  is  denoted  by 
crxoivia,  as  well  as  the  leather  strips  apparently  meant  in  the  passage  from 
Herodotus.  With  all  this  literary  evidence  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  in  Greek 
and  Roman  beds,  as  in  Egyptian,  both  cordage  of  various  vegetable  substances 
and  interwoven  strips  of  leather  were  employed.  Turning  to  the  monuments,  one 
finds  few  representations  of  the  tops  of  beds  realistic  or  clear  enough  to  be  decisive 


' This  was  certainly  the  rule  in  E^ypt.  .Although 
some  extant  stools  have  wooden  bottoms,  none  of 
the  couches  have. 

^ See  p.  Ill,  n.  20. 

3 For  reference,  sec  p.  62,  n.  4. 

In  Seiler-Capeli.e,  Vollslaiidigcs  Worierbitch 
iiher  die  Gcdichle  des  Honieros  mid  dcr  II  omeriden 
and  Ebeling,  Lexicon  Jlomeriatm,  both  following 
CuKTius,  Grundziige  der  griechischrn  Elymologie 
p.  288,  the  word  aw&pTov  is  said  to  be  related  to  enrdpa 
and  to  be  derived  from  airdpoi^  “to  twist,  coil.” 
'File  term  would  naturally  have  been  a])plied  to 


vegetable  fibers  which  needed  to  be  twisted  together 
to  produce  strands  for  interweaving,  whereas  it  is 
inappropriate  to  leather  which  was  not  twisted,  but 
cut  in  strips  of  suitable  width.  Ebeling  and  the 
authorities  whom  he  (juotes  all  understand  the 
Homeric  term  as  denoting  plant  materials.  For 
its  application  in  later  times  to  ropes  made  from 
hemp  and  other  ])lants,  and  its  transference  finallv 
to  a ])lant  introduced  from  Spain  and  to  cordage 
made  from  the  latter,  we  have  the  authority  of 
Varro  and  Pliny.  See  passages  (pioted  in  HlUiMNEK, 
Tcchnologie,  V'ol.  I,  ]>.  294,  n.  4. 


64 


INTERLACED  FILLING  OF  COUCH  FRAMES 


Methods  oj  Plaiting 
and  Attachment 


on  this  j^oint.  One  interesting  confirmation,  however,  of  the  use  of  leather  plaiting 
on  lieds  is  furnislied  by  tlie  marble  fragment  from  Pergamon  of  a fulbsizeil  repro- 
duction of  a bed,  shown  from  the  top  in  Plate  V.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  on  close 
view,  that  leather  bands  arc  intended.  Any  vegetable  material  of  the  nature  of 
modern  cane  would  have  a slightly  convex  surface;  ropes  arc  certainly  not  repre- 
sented. T.eathcr  is  tlicrefore  the  most  probable  material,  and  the  stri])s  look  like 
leather;  the  varying  width,  the  sliglit  curling  of  the  edges,  and  the  thickness  are 
extremely  well  rendered.  An  analogy  to  this  interlacing  may  be  mentioned  in 
the  chair-back  of  the  higli-rclicf  Zeus  figure  of  jioros  in  the  Acropolis  museum. 
It,  too,  has  a framework  richly  ornamented  with  rosettes  and  other  motives,  and 
the  leather  strips,  which  are  narrower,  are  in  three  colors,  woven  closely  without 
interstices  in  a checked  pattern.' 

On  the  monuments  interlacings  almost  invariably  appear  to  be  diagonal.^ 
In  some  cases,  no  doubt,  the  strands  actually  ran  diagonally,  as  in  the  Pergamon 
couch  and  in  the  back  of  the  chair  of  the  Zeus  relief.  In  others,  however,  they 
may  have  been  merely  so  woven  as  to  produce  diagonal  patterns,  while  in  reality 
lying  parallel  with  the  rails,  as  in  numerous  preserved  Egyptian  bits  of  rope  or  rush 
])laiting.  The  true  diagonal  interlacing  was  ]>erhaps  due  to  a practical  reason — 
the  wish  to  use  without  visible  splicing  the  varying  lengths  which  would  result  in 
cutting  u[)  a hide.-’  The  primitive  method  in  attaching  an  interlacing  to  the 
frame  of  a chair  or  couch  was  for  the  separate  strands  to  be  slung  about  the  rails 
and  variously  knotted  on  their  inner  faces.  Eviflence  of  the  use  by  the  Greeks  of 
this  method,  which  was  common  in  Egypt,  is  seen  in  the  vertical  lines  on  the  rails 
of  funiiture  as  portrayed  in  vase-paintings. The  disappearance  of  these  lines 
corresponds  no  doubt  to  the  introduction  of  the  practice  of  piercing  the  rails  with 
holes  to  accommodate  the  strands  of  the  interlacing.^ 

In  the  absence  of  actual  remains  of  Greek  or  Roman  date,  an  Egyptian  couch'^ 


' The  chair  stands  in  the  museum  ordinarily 
with  the  back  to  the  wall,  and  would  have  escaped 
my  notice  but  for  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Schrader, 
second  secretary  of  the  German  Institute,  who  called 
my  attention  to  it.  I am  able,  just  as  these  pages 
are  going  to  press,  to  add  the  reference  Wiegand, 
Die  archaische  Poros-Architektur  dcr  Akropolis  zu 
Athai,  ]).  99,  Fig.  99  and  Plate  VIII. 

In  the  vase-painting  of  a chair.  Arch.  Zeit., 
1885,  Plate  15,  the  strands  perhaps  run  parallel 
with  the  sides  of  the  frame. 

^ There  is  no  advantage  in  resisting  strains  in 
the  diagonal  method;  on  the  contrary,  strands 
parallel  with  the  rails  distribute  the  strain  at  any 
given  place  more  completely  over  the  entire  inter- 


lacing. d'he  corded  bedsteads  which  in  modern 
times  preceded  the  present  slats  and  springs  or 
woven  wire  mattresses  were,  so  far  as  I can  learn, 
corded  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  not  diagonally. 

4 See  the  bed  figured  in  J.  II.  S.,  Vol.  II  (1881), 
Plate  10.  and  further  remarks  on  this  theme  in  the 
Jahrh.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  p.  132. 

5 A few  instances  of  dots  on  the  rails  of  furniture 
as  portrayed  in  vase-paintings  may  be  intended  for 
such  holes.  See  the  bed  of  Procrustes  referred  to 
on  p.  62  in  n.  4. 

® In  the  Egyptian  Department  of  the  Royal 
Museums  at  Berlin:  Verz.  dcr  dgypt.  Altert.^,  p. 

196,  No.  9592.  See  p.  97,  n.  2. 


METHODS  OF  INTERLACING 


65 


which  has  some  of  its  leather  interlacing  still  preserved  is  of  interest.  Figs.  32 
and  33  give  a vertical  section  and  a sketch  from  the  inner  face  of  a rail  of  this  couch. 
The  strands  are  fastened  somewhat  like  machine  stitching;  that  is,  they  are  drawn 
up  and  down  through  the  same  hole,  being  caught  below  by  another  strap  of  leather 
which  passes  continuously  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  rail,  performing  the  same 


Fig.  32. — Section. 


Fig.  33. — Sketch  of  wooden  rail  of  an  Egyptian  couch.  Inner  side. — Berlin 


office  for  all  the  holes  of  that  rail.  This  makes  possible  a single,  taut  interlacing 
reaching  to  the  very  surface  of  the  rail,  since  all  the  strands  enter  the  interlacing 
from  the  same  level.  Possibly  the  filling  of  the  Pergamon  couch  represents  the 
same  principle.  The  thickness  of  the  rail,  as  shown  in  Plate  VI,  is  so  great  as  to 
make  it  improbable  that  the  holes  were  pierced  vertically.  A 
proposed  sectional  restoration  through  one  of  the  holes  is  given 
in  Fig.  34.  A neat  feature  of  the  Pergamon  couch  is  the  strip 
which  hides  the  adjustment  of  the  leather  bands  into  their  holes, 
and  with  its  double  curve  forms  a transition  from  the  level  of  the 
frame  to  the  slightly  lower  level  of  the  interlacing.  Petronius’s 
talc'  of  the  boy  Giton  in  hiding  under  a bed,  clinging  with  hands 
and  feet  to  its  institae,  suggests  either  an  interlacing  with  extremely  large  inter- 
stices, or  one  in  which  on  the  under  surface  stranrls  were  carried  from  side  to 
side  without  interweaving.^ 


Fig.  34. 


' Petron.,  97. 

^ 'I'his  arrangement  would  give  three  levels  of 
strands,  the  ujijier  interlaced  surface  and  the  two 
under  s^ts  of  strands  j)assing  in  directions  at  right 
angles  to  one  another.  In  the  anthropological 
collection  housed  in  the  Natural  History  Museum 


at  Hamburg  is  a rude  couch  from  cast  Africa,  No. 
C 799,  which  has  such  a filling.  Lowest  of  all  are 
the  strands  passing  from  side  to  side  of  the  couch, 
in  the  middle  are  those  running  from  end  to  end, 
and  in  the  upper  surface  are  the  two  sets  woven  in  a 
diagonal  pattern. 


CHAPTER  IV 


FURNISHINGS— MATTRESSES,  PILLOWS,  VALANCES,  AND  DRAPERIES 

Four  kinds  of  furnishings  may  be  noted  in  antique  representations  of  Greek 
and  Roman  couchesP  These  are  mattresses,  pillows,  valances,  and  loose  dra- 
peries, the  last  either  covering  the  occupants  of  the  bed  or  thrown  over  the  bed  itself, 
often  in  such  a way  as  to  perform  the  ofhee  of  a valance.  Three  factors  chiefly 
would  seem  to  have  determined  the  nature  of  the  bed-furnishings  in  a given  case: 
the  styles  prevalent  at  the  time,  the  sort  of  couch  to  be  furnished,  and  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  to  be  used.  All  couches  had  for  comfort  a mattress  or  other 
covering  over  the  interlacing  and  one  or  more  pillows;  those  for  sleeping  were 
provided  with  various  coverlets.^  The  thickness  of  the  mattress,  however,  the 
stuffs  and  patterns  of  the  furnishings,  and  other  details  naturally  varied  at  different 
periods.^  Draperies  covering  the  couch  and  valances  do  not  belong  to  the  essential 
furnishings,  and  are  accordingly  often  absent  from  the  representations  of  couches. 
They  were  used  either  as  lu.xurious  accessories  on  very  fine  couches,  or  apparently 
to  conceal  rude  or  very  plain  structures,  ^ or  possibly  in  some  cases  to  hide  the  under 
surface  of  the  interlacing. 

On  a few  of  the  Dipylon  vases  with  prothesis  scenes  a covering  which  was 
over  the  top  of  the  couch  under  the  corpse  is  represented  (see  Fig.  i).  It  is  of 
checked  pattern  in  the  few  instances  known.  ^ The  large  Corinthian  craters  (see 


^ In  the  Homeric  period  skins  and  woolen  bed- 
clothes were  in  use  at  night.  Buchholz  thinks  that 
Homeric  beds  had  also  mattresses  and  pillows,  and 
perhaps  linen  coverlets  in  addition  to  those  of  wool. 
See  Buchholz,  Vol.  II,  Bart  II,  pp.  157-161. 

^ The  drapery  of  the  occupants  of  banquet 
couches  seems  to  be  their  himatia  or  other  outer 
garments,  to  judge  by  the  way  the  folds  are  drawn 
up  over  their  shoulders,  rather  than  especially 
provided  coverings.  In  literature  it  is  usually 


not  clear  just  how  the  various  draperies  mentioned 
were  disposed. 

^ This  is  not,  of  course,  to  assert  that  there  was 
absolute  uniformity  at  any  one  time. 

So  Professor  Winter  thinks  in  the  case  of  a 
funerary  couch  on  a white  lecythus  published  by 
him  under  the  title;  Eine  atiischc  Lckytlios  des 
Berliner  Museums;  see  p.  6. 

s See  also  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr.,  p. 
27,  Fig.  19. 


MONUMENTAL  EVIDENCE.  SIXTH  CENTURY 


67 


Figs.  35  and  2)'  of  the  earlier  half  of  the  sixth  century  show  both  beds  with  incised, 
rectangular  legs,  and  those  with  turned  legs  furnished  with  a thick  mattress ; thrown 
over  this  is  a covering  which  hides  the  bed-frame  and  in  part  the  legs.^  These 
draperies  often  have  running  lengthwise  broad  stripes  of  solid  red  or  of  cross- 
hatchings, scale  or  other  patterns,  and  fringe  on  their  lower  edges.  Each  person 
is  provided  with  one  pillow  under 
his  elbow,  and  the  lower  part  of 
his  figure  is  enveloped  in  his  hima- 
tion.^  Perhaps  as  old  as  these 
Corinthian  vases  is  a black-figured 
Attic  cylix  in  Berlin''  on  which 
occur  thick  mattresses  with  fringed 
draperies  over  themC  On  a Co- 
rinthian vase  of  slightly  later  date 
the  bed  portrayed  (Fig.  4)  also  has 
a very  thick  mattress,  and  above  it  a 
thinner  one.  The  thicker  mattress  is 
on  top  in  a Chalcidian  vase-painting'' 

(Fig.  5),  dating  from  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixth  century.  In  the  Etruscan  wall  decoration  of  Eig.  8,  from  the  latter  half 
of  the  century,  there  is  again  a single  thick  mattress.^  All  these  have  close-fitting, 
often  patterned  cases  on  the  mattresses,  instead  of  the  fringed  coverings  prevalent 
earlier.  The  Etruscan  example  cited  has  also  over  the  mattress  a wide-bordered 
cloth;  this  may  have  served  the  purpose  of  holding  the  thick  mattress  in  place. 


Fig.  35. — Achilles  attended  in  illness  by  Thetis.  Detail  from  a Corin- 
thian vase-painting. — Louvre. 


' See  also  Vases  ant.  dti  Louvre,  Series  I,  Plate 
45,  E 623;  Plate  46,  E 629  and  E 630;  Plate  48, 
E 634  and  E 635. 

“ There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a thick 
mattress  underneath  the  drapery,  for  no  other 
supposition  will  account  for  the  great  height  of  the 
reclining  person  from  the  floor. 

3 The  bed,  also  from  a Corinthian  vase,  rej)re- 
sented  in  Fig.  3,  is  exceptional  at  this  period  in  having 
no  visible  mattress,  and  in  being  furnished  with 
what  to  all  appearance  is  a valance  fastened  to 
the  rail  between  the  legs. 

4 Furtwanglek,  Beschreibung  der  Vasensamm- 
lung  iin  Antiquarium  (Berlin),  No.  17. 

s Other  early  exami)les  of  the  fringed  drajicry 
thrown  over  mattress  and  upper  part  of  couch  ap- 
j)ear  on  a black-figured  oenochoe  from  the  necrop- 
olis of  Suessula,  jiublished  in  the  Kdm.  Mill.,  Vol. 


II  (1887),  Plate  XI-XII,  4,  and  the  British  Vluseum 
lebes,  B 46,  given  in  B.  M.  Vol.  II,  p.  62 

under  imitations  of  Corinthian  ware,  and  by  Dr. 
Karo  in  .J.  H.  S.,  Vol.  XIX  (1899),  p.  144  as  Ionic; 
also  J.  II . S.,  Vol.  VII  (1886),  p.  197;  Bulletin  dc 
correspondance  hellcnique,  Vol.  XVII  (1893),  p.  236, 
Fig.  4. 

^ Cj.  the  approximately  contemporary  Chalcidian 
vase,  Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  i<q=Arch.  Zeit., 
1866,  Plate  206,  which  shows  the  earlier  fashion 
of  fringed,  striped  drapery  over  the  mattress. 

7 On  the  Etruscan  monuments  very  thick  mat- 
tresses continued  on  into  the  fifth  century.  See 
B.\u.\ieister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  549  = d/<w.  d.  I.,  Vol.  VI, 
Plate  54  = De  Longrerier,  Musce  Napoleon  III, 
Plate  XXXV;  Monunienli  antichi  pubblicati  per  cura 
delU Accadania  dei  Lined,  Vol.  VIII,  Plate  XI 11; 
Ant.  Denkm.,  II,  Plate  43. 


68  FURNISHINGS— MATTRESSES,  PILLOWS,  VALANCES,  AND  DRAPERIES 


since  it  docs  not  hang  loosely,  but  is  tucked  in  above  the  rail.  The  couches  on  vases 
of  the  devcloi)cd  black-figured  style  have  one  or  more  pillows  at  the  head  and 
mattresses  of  moderate  thickness,  often  only  one,  then  again  a thicker  under  mat- 
tress, and  above  it  one  or  two  less  thick.'  The  same  arrangements  are  seen  on 
some  red-figured  vases.  ^ The  tendency,  however,  is  toward  thinner  mattresses 

{cf.  Figs.  6 and  26).  On 
some  banejuet  couches  of 
the  fifth  century,  as  pictured 
on  vases,  the  only  furnish- 
ings visible  are  pillows  (see 
Figs.  9,  22,  and  28),  yet  it 
seems  as  if  these  couches 
must  have  had  at  least  cover- 
lets over  the  interlacings.  ^ 
In  Fig.  36  is  given  a selec- 
tion of  pillows  showing  the 
variety  of  striped  stuffs  used 
for  making  the  cases.  The 
pillows  were  of  varying 
shapes ; some  seem  to  be  long 
and  round  like  bolsters, 
others  approximately  scpiare 
and  more  or  less  flat;  the 
frontispiece  shows  oblong, 
fairly  thick  pillows.  Pillows 
at  the  feet  of  the  reclining 

Fig.  36. — Various  styles  of  pillows  and  bolsters.  From  Greek  vase-paintings.  , '' 

person  (see  Fig.  29  and  Plate 

YII/p,  to  which  M.  Girard  calls  attention,'*  appear  first  in  the  fifth  century.  The 
earliest  certain  instance  of  a valance  known  to  me  is  that  of  Fig.  44;  here  surely 
the  drapery  is  fastened  to  the  couch  frame.  In  many  vase-paintings  the  couch 
docs  not  show  at  all  (Fig.  37);  one  or  more  mattresses  and  pillows,  and  a fulled 


* It  is  usually  difficult  to  tell  whether  a single 
mattress  striped  lengthwise  is  intended  or  sej)arate 
mattresses.  Where,  however,  as  on  a black-hgured 
hydria,  B 301,  in  the  British  Xluseum  (Micali, 
Storia,  Plate  89),  the  ends  of  the  mattresses  fall  over 
the  befl  separately,  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the 
matter. 

WBaumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  ']gi=Mon.  d.  I., 
Vol.  VIII,  Plate  XXVII;  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XV  (1900), 


p.  78,  Fig.  j^=Arch.  Zeit.,  1867,  Plate  220; 
Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  447  = Overbeck,  Atlas 
dcr  Kimstmythologie,  Plate  VI,  2 and  3,  etc. 

3 Aristoph.,  Lysistr.,  916  ff.,  suggests  that  so 
slight  a padding  as  a rush  mat  would  suffice.  C/. 
Fig.  13  where  perhaps  a Ita0os  is  represented. 

4 Girard,  p.  1018. 


MONUMENTAL  EVIDENCE.  FIFTH  CENTURY  AND  LATER 


69 


drapery  fastened  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  rail  or  to  the  mattress/  envelop  it.^ 
There  are  instances  in  the  fifth  century  of  a loose  covering  over  the  mattress 
hanging  down  to  conceal  the  entire  bed,  except  the  lower  part  of  the  legs.  A richly 
figured  example  from  a Boeotian  vase  is  shown  in  the  headpiece  of  this  chapter. 
On  the  Gjolbaschi  frieze  the  beds  with  turned  legs  are  so  covered.-^  A fashion 
which  I have  not  noted  on  monuments 
earlier  than  the  fourth  century  is  the 
presence  of  a loose  drapery  hanging  down 
over  couches  from  under  the  mattress. 

An  early  example  of  this  is  seen  on  the 
marble  funerary  couch  published  by  Dr. 

Vollmoller,  of  which  a reduced  view  is 
repeated  here  in  Fig.  38.  In  this  the 
drapery  in  part  conceals  the  legs.  Pecu- 
liar to  the  couches  represented  in  the 
Myrina  terra-cottas  and  their  analogues 
(p.  29)  is  the  drapery  falling  over  the 
front  of  the  couch  from  under  the  mat- 
tress to  the  floor,  and  just  filling  in  the 
space  between  the  legs,  but  never  hiding  them  (Fig.  30).  Also  of  about  this  time 
probably  is  the  bit  of  Egyptian  faience  (Fig.  13,  also  p.  97,  n.  2)  which  shows  a 
couch  with  a rush  mat  or  covering  of  other  loosely  woven  material  thrown  over  it. 
The  details  of  a valance  of  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  B.  C.,  elaborately 
figured  in  horizontal  registers,  are  admirably  reproduced  in  the  Pergamene  frag- 
ments of  Plates  IV  and  VI. Another  richly  figured  valance  is  represented  in 
a rude  terra-cotta  from  Egypt  (Plate  Vlla).^  The  present  raj)id  sketch  may  be 
terminated  with  a mention  of  the  exceptionally  thick  mattresses  of  Roman  date 
which  put  in  an  appearance  some  time  after  Christ.  dTese  arc  best  rci)rescnted 
in  the  covers  of  Roman  sarcopliagi  of  the  second  century  A.  D.  and  later  (sec 
Fig.  17),'’  and  are  often  very  richly  figured. 


Fig.  37. — Eros  ministering  to  the  dying  Adonis.  Part  of  a 
red-figured  vase-painting. — Naples. 


‘ In  Fig.  37  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  drapery 
is  adjusted  over  the  headboard,  unless  it  is  fastened 
to  the  mattress  whose  curve  it  follows.  It  would 
hardly  hang  so  full  and  even,  if  it  were  a large  cover- 
let thrown  over  the  entire  couch. 

^ See  the  red-figured  lecane  published  in  the 
Comptc-rendu,  1873,  Plate  VI;  a funerary  banquet 
relief  from  the  Piricus  (Fkiedkichs-Wolters, 
Die,  Gipsahgiisse  antiker  Bildwerke,  No.  1059  = 
Le  Bas-Reinach,  Voyiij’e  archeologiqiie.  cn  Cr'ecc 
el  en  Asie-Mineure,  Plate  54);  the  British  Museum 
Apulian  crater,  F 2’]2=  Mon.  d.  /.,  1854,  Plate  XVI, 


the  Apulian  pclice  also  in  the  British  IMuseum, 
F ^ii=FJite  cer.,  II,  Plate  49,  and  vases  repro- 
duced in  Rein.ACH,  Peinlitrcs  de  vases  antiques, 
Millin,  I,  Plates  59  and  69. 

3 GjdlhasrJii-7'rysa,  Plates  XIX,  17,  18;  XX  and 
XXL 

Discussed  at  length  ]>]>.  93  ff. 

5 Discussed  at  length,  p.  97. 

.\Lso  Rohekt,  Antikc  Sarkophag-Reliejs,  \’ol. 
II,  Plates  \'in  and  Xl\b  Cj.  also  the  thick  mat- 
tress shown  here  in  Plate  XXV’llI. 


70  FURNISHINGS~.\fATTRESSES,  PILLOWS,  VALANCES,  AND  DRAPERIES 


From  literary  evidence'  it  is  known  that  mattresses  and  pillows  were  usually 
covered  with  linen,  that  wool  was  also  used  for  both  these  articles,  and  leather  to 
some  extent  for  pillows.  INIattresses  and  pillows  as  figured  in  vase-paintings 
might  well  be  covered  with  cither  of  the  first  two  materials  mentioned,  but  any- 
thing looking  like  leather  is  extremely  rare;  M.  Girard  has  pointed  out  instances 
on  Etruscan  sarcophagi  in  couch  form  of  the  sixth  century."  Silk  probably  found 
some  use  for  pillows.  The  patterns  seen  in  the  ancient  representations  were  prob- 
ably, as  a usual  thing,  woven  in,  but  were  sometimes  embroidered. 

A great  variety  of  materials  was  used  for  the  stu fling  of  pillows  and  mat- 
tresses.-^ The  commonest  material  used  by  the  Greeks  seems  to  have  been  refuse 


Fig.  38. — Funerary  couch  of  marble  in  a tomb  at  Vathia  on  the  island  of  Euboea. 


wool,  torn  off  in  carding  or  in  fulling  cloth.  The  transference  of  the  name  of  this 
wool,  Kve(f)ak\ov,  to  mattresses,  and  perhaps  also  to  pillows,  speaks  for  the  frequency 
of  its  use.  Both  refuse  wool  and  wool  especially  prejiared  for  the  purpose  were 
used  Ijy  the  Romans  for  stuffing.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  employed  as  a sub- 
stitute for  wool  the  soft  leaves  of  the  gnaphalium  or  cud-weed  ( ?).  The  state- 
ment that  straw,  rushes,  hay,  and  kindred  plant  materials  were  used  before  the 
practice  of  stuffing  with  wool  came  in,  and  continued  to  be  in  use  by  poor  people, 
rests  entirely  on  the  evidence  of  Latin  authors,'*  luff  is  as  likely  to  have  been  true  of 
Greece  as  of  Italy.  Feather  pillows  are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  fourth  century. 
"Fo  judge  liy  the  frequent  references  to  them  in  Latin  authors,  they  became  much 
more  common  in  the  Roman  period.  The  down  of  certain  northern  birds  also 
found  favor  among  the  Romans  for  pillows.  Cotton  seems  never  to  have  had  for 
any  purpose  a general  use.  The  only  mention  of  it  as  a filling  for  mattresses  and 

' This  is  most  fully  and  conveniently  stated  by  Tcchnologie,  I,  p.  205;  Marquardt-Mau,  Das 
Mau,  col.  373.  Privatleben  dcr  Romer^,  p.  724;  Matj,  cols.  372-3. 

^ Girard,  p.  1020.  4 Unless  the  avdi^X-n  of  Poll.,  X,  41,  is  an 

^ The  ancient  sources  are  fully  stated  in  Blumner  instance. 


LITERARY  EVIDENCE 


71 


pillows  is  in  Strabo  (XV,  693),  who  quotes  Nearchus  as  saying  that  it  was  thus 
employed  by  the  Macedonians;  7.^.,  probably  those  accompanying  Alexander  into  Asia. 

Linen  and  wool  were  the  principal  materials  out  of  which  stuffs  were  woven 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,'  and  accordingly  found  employment  for  the  coverlets 
and  draperies  of  beds.  Cotton  stuffs  were  probably  not  made  at  all  in  Greece 
or  Italy.  Silk  was  in  use  as  early  as  the  time  of  Aristotle,  and  probably  was 
employed  for  bed-hangings,  especially  by  the  luxury-lovers  among  the  Romans. 
Skins^  and  rush  mats^  were  also  used  on  beds.  Pollux  (X,  38  ff.)  enumerates  a vast 
number  of  bed-draperies,  and  distinguishes  those  which  had  a nap  on  two  sides 
or  on  one  only.  In  the  absence  of  more  explicit  statements,  the  epithets  which  he 
applies  to  the  various  draperies  are  suggestive — such,  for  instance,  as  “fine,”  “of 
fine  thread,”  “pliable;”  other  expressions  imply  that  they  were  brightly  colored, 
purple,  scarlet,  and  gold  being  often  mentioned.  The  patterns  of  these  draperies 
as  of  mattress  and  pillow  covers  were  sometimes  woven,  sometimes  embroidered, 
often  in  elaborate  designs. Apparently  stuffs  of  all  degrees,  from  thin,  washable^ 
linen  to  heavy  tapestries  (see  Plates  IV  and  VI),  were  used  on  beds. 

Some  special  makes  of  bed-furnishings  are  celebrated  in  literature.  In  the 
pre-Alexandrine  period  we  hear  of  Milesian  coverings.*'  Writers  quoted  by 
Athenasus  refer  to  cloth  of  Amorgus  and  to  Sardian  draperies,^  to  the  latter  once 
as  expensive  and  smooth-faced,  and  again  as  of  purple  color.  In  Latin  authors 
there  is  mention  of  Leuconian  blankets^  (from  Gaul?)  and  of  Assyrian  purple.^ 
One  kind  of  couch  draperies  imported  from  the  East  was  known  as  “ Babylonica.”'° 
Pliny,”  quoting  Cornelius  Nepos,  relates  that  the  once  highly  prized  purple  cloth 
came  into  disfavor  for  togas  because  it  had  been  used  so  much  for  couch  coverings. 
The  “Attalic  mattresses”  of  Propertius”  were  probably  mattresses  covered  with 
tapestries  of  a sort  which  originated  in  Pergamon. 


' Blumner,  Technologie,  Vol.  I,  Parts  II-IV. 
^ Plat.,  Prot.,  315c?;  Cic.,  Pro  Mur.,  36,  75. 

3 See  p.  68,  n.  3. 

E.  g.,  Catull.,  64,  48  ff. 

5 Hor.,  Sal.,  II,  4,  84. 

Aristoph.,  Ran.,  542. 

7 Athen.,  II,  48/),  and  VI,  255P. 


* Mart.,  XIV,  159. 

9 Verg.,  Cir.,  440. 

Plaut.,  Stick.,  378. 

" iV.  H.,  IX,  137. 

” II,  13,  22;  IV,  5,  24.  C/.  Plin.,  N.  II., 

VIII,  196,  where  Altai icus  vestis  is  said  to  be  woven 
with  gold  and  to  have  been  invented  by  Attains. 


CHAPTER  V 


STYLE 

In  considering  the  stylistic  f|iialities  of  Greek  and  Roman  beds,  attention  may 
protitaldy  be  turned,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  main  lines  of  the  structures,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  the  ornamental  details  The  interest  of  the  inquiry,  however,  is 
not  in  couches  as  isolated  ])roducts  of  ancient  industrial  art,  but  rather  in  them 
as  related  to  other  contemporary  greater  and  minor  productions.  The  pottery  and 
coins  of  the  Greeks  are  striking  examples  of  the  high  level  to  which  humble  industrial 
])roducts  may  rise  in  the  midst  of  a people  gifted  with  artistic  feeling.  Do  Greek 
and  Roman  couches  show  any  similar  superiority  which  would  give  them  a unique 
place  in  a history  of  furniture  of  all  times  ? Do  they  raise  or  lower  our  opinion  of 
standards  of  taste  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ? These  c|uestions  have  evoked 
the  opinions  offered  in  the  following  paragraj^hs.  Here  again  an  exhaustive 
study  is  out  of  the  question,  for  lack  both  of  space  and  of  proper  material,  and  I 
must  conhne  my  remarks  chiefly  to  three  classes  of  beds — those  most  clearly  defined 
to  us  in  ancient  reproductions  and  preserved  specimens,  viz.,  the  sixth-century 
and  fifth-century  couches  with  rectangular  legs  having  incisions,  the  Graeco-Roman 
beds  with  turned  legs  and  curved  head-rests  and  foot-rests,  and  the  high-backed 
Roman  couches. 

In  couches  of  the  sixth  and  of  the  earlier  half  of  the  fifth  century  straight  lines 
predominate;  upright  supports  and  horizontal  rails  are  the  rule,  and  head-rests, 
when  present,"  are  usually  built  up  on  straight  lines.  This  is  a reflection  of  the 
same  structural  tendencies  manifest  in  works  of  architecture,  which,  representing 
the  post  and  lintel  system,  exhibit  chiefly  vertical  and  horizontal  lines,  and  have 
at  this  time  in  the  Doric  style  very  massive  columns.  Heavy  proj)ortions  in  the 
human  figure  also,  as  seen  in  works  of  sculpture,  terra-cottas,  etc.,  are  character- 
istic of  the  period.  These  couches,  then,  considered  as  designs  have  a severity  and 
massiveness  to  be  expected  at  this  time.  Many  of  them,  however,  do  not  show 
the  harmony  of  proportion  which  we  have  been  taught  to  look  for  in  Greek  ])rod- 
ucts.  The  heavy  legs  have  in  reality  very  little  to  support;  the  rails  are  often 
narrow  and  seem  uner[ual  to  the  ])rospective  weight  implied  by  the  supports. 
Many  couches  with  rectangular  legs  have  a further  serious  fault,  viz.,  deep  incisions 
which  interrupt  the  outlines  of  the  legs,  and  which,  because  they  look  weak,^  are 

' The  type  of  couch  shown  in  Fig.  28  has  a ^ C/.  pp.  44-46. 
combination  of  curved  and  straight  lines  in  its  head- 
rest. 


72 


STRUCTURAL  LINES.  COUCHES  WITH  RECTANGULAR,  INCISED  LEGS  73 

aesthetically  objectionable.  Professor  Bliimner  is  the  only  writer  on  Greek  furni- 
ture who  seems  to  have  appreciated  this  fact,  or  at  least  who  has  commented  on  it." 
Dr.  Vollmoller,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks  that  the  incisions  lighten  the  heavy 
appearance  of  the  legs.^  If,  in  the  use  of  ornament,  there  is  any  one  law  which 
is  fundamental,  it  is  that  decorative  designs  must  not  break  constructional  lines. 
I have  searched  in  vain  in  ancient  art  for  anything  similar  in  nonconformity  to  this 
principle  to  these  couch  legs.  Assyrian  furniture  {e.  g.,  Fig.  39)^  frequently  shows 
two  double  volutes  with  a connecting-link  like  those  on  many  of  the  couches  in 
question;  these  are  surface  ornaments,  however,  inclosing,  but  not  encroaching  into, 
the  mass  of  the  members  which  they  decorate.  The  incised  legs  of  Greek  couches 


' In  “Der  altgriechische  Mobelstil,”  3d  article, 
Part  4,  in  Kunst  mid  Gewerbe,  1885,  Parts  10--12, 
writing  of  chairs  with  the  same  type  of  legs,  the 
author  says:  “Man  muss  gestehen,  es  iiberrascht, 
dass  bei  einem  Sitzmobel,  dessen  schwere  Formen 
sonst  durchweg  den  Eindruck  des  Soliden  hervor- 
rufen,  gerade  die  Beine  durch  diese  Einkerbung  so 
geschwacht  erscheinen;  man  erhalt  den  Eindruck, 
als  wiirde  der  schmale  Steg,  welche  die  beiden 
Palmetten  verbindet,  die  Last  des  auf  dem  Stuhle 

Sitzenden  nicht  aushalten  konnen Sicherlich 

waren  es  nicht  bios  asthetische,  sondern  auch 
technische  Griinde,  wenn  man  weiterhin  da  wo  der 
Rundstab  frei  ausgearbeitet  ist,  denselben  in  der 
Mitte  durch  knollenartige  oder  kugelformige  Ansatze 
verstarkt  hat.” 

^ Athen.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XXVI  (1901),  p.  348:  “Die 
plumpe  Schwere  des  Tragers  wird  dadurch  er- 
leichtert,  dass  der  Handwerker  am  unteren  Teil 
des  Fusses  zu  beiden  Seiten  geschweifte  Ausschnitte 
anbringt,  deren  Form  dann  durch  ein  Ornament, 
zwei  aufrecht  gestellte  und  in  der  Mitte  verbundene 
Doppelvoluten,  motivirt  wird.” 

3 Portion  of  an  Assyrian  throne  found  at  Nineveh 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  This  can  be 
dated  only  on  its  rescmlrlance  to  relief  sculpture; 
conseriuently  there  is  a wide  latitude,  as  the  double 
volute  ornaments  and  other  features  of  this  extant 
])iece  were  very  common  on  Assyrian  furniture. 
Uj)on  sculptured  slabs  in  the  British  Museum  I 
noted  the  following  j)ieces  of  furniture  of  a style 
similar  to  the  ])rcserved  specimen:  the  throne  of 
Azzurnazipal  (884-860  B.  C.)  on  relief  22  in  the 
Nimroud  Gallery;  furniture  and  a chariot  with 
body  in  chair  form  on  three  slabs  of  the  time  of 


Sargon  II  (722-705  B.  C.),  Nos.  2t,  22,  and  25  in 
the  Assyrian  Transept;  the  throne  of  Sennacherib 
(7o5-68r  B.  C.),  Slab  28  in  the  Assyrian  Saloon  (A 
Guide  to  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Antiquities, 
Plate  III);  finally  the  chair  of  the  queen  in  the  well- 
known  scene  of  Assurbanipal  (668-626  B.  C.)  and 
his  queen  feasting  in  the  royal  garden,  Slab  121 
of  the  Assyrian  Gallery  {Monographien  zur  Welt- 
geschichte.  No.  XVIII,  Bezold,  Nineveh  und 
Babylon,  p.  121,  Fig.  91). 

The  use  of  the  double-volute  motive  is  a striking 
point  of  similarity  between  this  series  of  typical 
Assyrian  furniture  and  the  class  of  Greek  furni- 
ture under  discussion;  further,  the  gap  of  time 
between  the  latest  known  examples  of  the  one 
group  and  the  earliest  of  the  other  (see  p.  20)  is  a 
short  one,  probably  not  more  than  fifty  years.  These 
facts,  in  my  opinion,  point  to  a probable  origin  of 
the  Greek  style  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor  under 
Assyrian  influence  (c/.  p.  54,  n.  5).  The  volute 
capitals  were  certainly  a Greek  addition,  for  some 
chairs  of  early  seated  figures  from  Branchidie  (sec 
p.  47,  n.  2)  and  beds  on  Corinthian  craters  (Figs. 
3 and  35)  do  not  yet  have  them.  Whether  the 
pattern  of  the  legs  otherwise  was  a seventh-century 
Greek  arrangement  of  Assyrian  motives,  or  was 
found  in  its  present  form  in  Assyrian  models  unknown 
to  us,  is  impossible  to  say.  C/.  in  Koi.dewey, 
Die  antiken  Baurcste  der  Inscl  Lesbos,  p.  45,  the 
suggestion  that  a volute  ca])ital  of  the  same  design 
as  that  which  is  the  regular  crowning  of  chair  and 
bed  sujiports  is  an  .Eolic  invention.  But  cf.  finally 
also  the  discovery  of  Corinthian  letters  on  the  ivory 
carvings  mentioned,  p.  46,  end  of  n.  3,  and  Pro- 
fessor G.  Korte’s  theory  that  these  carvings  may 
have  been  importations  to  Gordion  fronr  Corinth. 


74 


STYLE 


and  chairs  arc  as  barbarous  in  their  way  as  the  columns  of  temples  would  be  with 
outlines  broken  at  a third  of  their  height  by  great  volutes  carved  out  of  their  thick- 
ness. Whether  or  not  the  Greeks  were  originally  responsible  for  this  inartistic 
application  of  the  volute  forms  shown  in  Fig.  39  (sec  p.  73,  n.  3),  they  at  least  gave 


From  a photograph  by  \V.  A.  Mansell  & Co. 


Fig.  3q. — Parts  of  an  Assyrian  scat  and  footstool. — British  Museum. 


it  the  indorsement  of  use  during  several  centuries.  It  is  of  interest,  however,  to 
see  that  in  the  later  related  design  represented  in  the  frontispiece  the  two  unpleasing 
features  have  been  eliminated.  Plere  the  rail  has  a substantial  width  in  keeping 
with  that  of  the  supports,  and  the  ornament  of  the  legs  is  in  surface  carvings, 


STRUCTURAL  LINES.  COUCHES  WITH  CURVED  END-RESTS 


75 


leaving  their  outlines  uninterrupted."  The  entire  design  is  consistent  and  for 
massive  effects  satisfying.^ 

About  the  time  that  in  vase-painting  the  so-called  “Fine  Style,”  making  greater 
use  of  curved  lines,  came  into  vogue,  and  in  sculpture  poses  became  less  rigid  and 
drapery  less  formal,  the  developed  artistic  spirit  of  the  age  was  not  unfelt  in  the 
craft  of  couch-making,  for  the  best  thing  aesthetically  which  the  Greeks  did  in  the 
way  of  a design  for  a bed  makes  its  first  appearance  somewhere  near  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century  (Fig.  44).  The  legs  of  the  fifth-century  examples  are  sub- 
stantial, but  not  too  heavy ; the  upper  part  alcove  the  frame  is  pleasingly  contrasted 
with  and  emphasized  by  the  curve  of  the  two  rests  and  their  projection  beyond  the 
supporting  lines  of  the  bed.  Early  examples  are  too  rare  to  trace  developments, 
but  it  looks  as  if  the  legs  of  beds  for  a time  grew  more  slender,  keeping  pace  with 
the  slender  proportions  in  the  columns  of  temples  and  in  the  human  figure  as  por- 
trayed in  art;  then  in  the  Roman  period,  apparently,  they  became  shorter  and 
somewhat  squat;  but  this  theme  has  been  developed  elsewhere,^  and  I will  not  go 
into  it  here.  The  couch  in  the  tomb  at  Vathia  (Fig.  38)  has  fairly  heavy  propor- 
tions and  legs  which  are  distinguished  by  the  introduction  of  a claw-foot  at  about 
a third  of  their  height.  There  seem,  indeed,  to  be  two  classes  of  these  couches 
with  curved  rests — the  first,  purer  and  more  restrained  in  style,  with  legs  consisting 
entirely  of  turnings;'*  and  the  second,  in  which  other  motives,  floral  or  animal, 
are  introduced  as  working  members  among  the  turned  parts.  ^ 

These  couches,  with  excellent  main  lines,  had  a long  history  and  continued 
in  vogue  past  the  x\ugustan  period  of  Roman  art.  Then  came  the  gradual  straight- 
ening of  the  rests,  bringing  their  lines  into  the  upward  direction  of  those  of  the  legs, 
and  thus  producing  a more  monotonous  structure.  With  the  increase  in  the  height 
of  the  end-boards  and  the  introduction  of  the  back  the  upper  part  of  the  couches 
became  very  prominent.  The  late  Roman  couches  differ  greatly  among  them- 
selves, so  far  as  the  relative  proportions  of  the  different  parts  are  concerned.  The 
little  sofa  of  Plate  XXIXu  is  one  of  the  happiest  efforts.  The  most  frequent  defect 
is  a weakness  of  the  legs,  just  the  reverse  of  the  defect  seen  on  the  first  type  with 
rectangular  legs,  for  here  the  supported  portion  is  too  heavy  for  that  below  (c/. 
Fig.  40).  iMarked  characteristics  are  the  unbroken  upper  line  defining  back  and 
arms,  and  the  invariableness  of  perpendicular  legs.  There  are  no  instances  among 


' Cj.  Plate  I,  where  the  rail  is  wide,  but  the 
ornament  of  the  legs  is  in  ]>art  cut  out. 

^ The  only  disturbing  item,  in  my  estimation, 
is  the  height  of  the  relief  decoration  on  the  rail. 

3 Jahrb.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  pp.  133  If. 

* 'Phis  does  not  die  out  with  the  introduction  of 


the  second  style.  The  e.xtant  bronze  couches,  with 
one  exception,  belong  to  this  class. 

s See  Figs.  14,  30,  38,  and  50;  the  “Caj)itoline 
bisellium”  is  also  an  exam])le  (for  references  see 
]).  32,  n.  6);  cj.  also  Plate  XX,  where  the  boy  figures 
now  on  the  corners  of  the  frame  probably  belong 
on  the  legs  of  the  couch. 


?6 


STYLE 


Roman  couches  of  the  end-rests  lower  than  the  l^ack/  or  of  the  back  having  a 
higher  middle  part,  thus  breaking  the  horizontal  line.  Legs  curving  out  at  the 
floor  level,  such  as  are  common  on  modern  sofas,  are  unknown  on  Roman 
couches.  It  is  surely  not  a flight  of  fancy  to  say  that  the  Roman  sofas  are  just 
the  sort  of  thing  one  would  exjject  the  Romans  to  produce — severcjuid  lacking  in 
fine  and  beautiful  lines,  but  practical,  technically  skilful,  and  not  without  some 
merits  of  design ; for  instance,  the  straightness  of  the  legs  is  sounder  sesthetically, 


Fig.  40. — Relief  from  a Roman  gravestone. — Island  of  Paros. 


considering  the  weight  to  be  borne,  than  the  curve  mentioned  above  as  frequent 
in  modern  sofa-legs.  It  would  be  as  impossible  to  think  of  the  Romans  making 
couches  like  the  typical  “Empire”  sofa  as  to  think  of  the  Roman  high-backed 
couch  as  an  e.xprcssion  of  the  age  and  land  in  which  the  Empire  style  originated. 

To  turn  our  attention  now  to  ornament,  that  of  the  couches  with  rectangular 
legs  having  incisions  has  considerable  interest.  The  constant  features  are  the 
double-volute  incisions,  more  or  less  modified,'’  the  palmettes  placed  above  and 


' Except  the  two  settee-like  couches  spoken  of 
on  pp.  34,  35,  one  of  which  is  pictured  in  IMate 

xxrx5. 

^ These  incisions  appear  variously  on  works  of 
art,  often  in  inexact  or  abbreviated  forms.  I am 
convinced  that  the  normal  form  is  an  adaptation  of 
the  motive  seen  in  the  Assyrian  bronze  of  Fig.  39; 
this  seems  also  to  be  Dr.  Vollmoller’s  view,  to  judge 
by  the  description  quoted  p.  73,  n.  2.  A clear  early 


example  is  on  the  legs  of  a chair  of  one  of  the  seated 
figures  from  Branchidte  (for  references  see  p.  47, 
n.  2)  in  the  British  Museum;  the  details  of  these 
chair-legs  are  inaccurately  given  in  publications; 
for  instance,  in  Overbeck,  Geschichte  der  grie- 
chischen  Vol.I,  p.  loi,  instead  of  the  rounded 

projections  and  the  line  like  the  end  of  a tenon, 
there  should  be  a link  or  band  passing  around  the 
volutes;  the  only  feature  of  the  Assyrian  motive 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  RECTANGULAR,  INCISED  LEGS 


77 


below  the  incisions,  rosettes  on  the  upper  part  of  the  legs,  and  volute  capitals  of 
distinctive  forms.  The  rails  occasionally  have  ornament,  but  this  is  variable  and 
without  special  interest,  and  need  not  be  considered  here. 

The  rosette  is  one  of  the  commonest  motives  in  ancient  decorative  art  and  is 
variously  composed.  The  particular  star-like  form  which  is  seen  here  is  not  espe- 
cially frequent.  It  appears  most  often  filling  in  squares  left  in  mseander  patterns, 
as  on  sarcophagi  from  Clazomenae'  and  on  the  stuccoed  sima  of  the  temple  S at 
Selinunte,^  and  similarly  on  the  frieze  of  a temple  at  Metapontum.^  It  is  of  con- 
stant occurrence  as  a type  on  coins  of  Miletus. 

The  other  ornamental  motives  on  these  couch  legs  are  closely  associated  with 
one  another.  Instances  occur  on  black-figured  vases  where  rectangular  furniture 
legs  not  represented  as  incised  nevertheless  have  the  full  design,  palmettes  and  the 


conventionalized  upright  volutes,  painted 

not  plastically  rendered  on  the  chair  from  Branchidie 
is  the  middle  line  marking  the  boundary  between 
the  two  double  volutes;  this  line  may  have  been 
painted.  The  entire  design  including  developed 
palmettes  appears  plastically  rendered  on  the  legs 
of  the  very  primitive  Etruscan  sarcophagus  repre- 
senting a couch  which  is  in  the  British  Museum;  see 
Murray,  Terracotta  Sarcophagi,  Greek  and  Etruscan, 
in  the  British  Museum,  Plate  IX,  and  a detail  from 
the  foot  of  the  sarcophagus  given  above  in  Fig.  41. 
On  red-figured  vases,  where  the  drawing  is  more 
to  be  trusted  than  on  earlier  ware,  a link  binding 
the  stems  of  the  two  double  volutes  together  in  the 
middle,  j)recisely  as  in  the  Assyrian  example,  is 
sometimes  seen  (e.  g.,  Monuments  Piot,  Vol.  I [1894], 
Plate  VII).  Other  red-figured  vase-]>aintings  give 
the  volutes  in  some  detail  (e.  g.,  Baumeister,  Vol. 
Ill,  Fig.  iji4=Elite  cer.,  IV,  87).  Again,  a red- 
figured  vase  shows  on  a chair  (above.  Fig.  42)  double 
volutes  as  nearly  identical  with  the  motive  on  the 
Assyrian  bronze  as  is  possible  in  the  case  of  two 
objects  of  such  different  sizes.  The  marble  repro- 
duction of  a couch  in  the  “Tomb  of  the  Reliefs” 
at  Cervetri  (Dennis,  The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  oj 
Etruria^,  Vol.  1,  p.  252)  jiresents  another  example 
practically  identical  with  the  Assyrian  ]>rototype. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  majority  of  the  black- 
figured  and  some  of  the  red-figured  vases  do  not 
show  a link;  they  have  in  the  miildle  between  the 
upper  and  lower  volutes  horizontal  jirojections, 
drawn  either  in  one  continuous  line  with  the  stems 
or  as  circles  tangent  to  the  stems.  'I'he  first  form, 


on  them.  These  show  that  the  design 

perhaps  the  original  one,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  43, 
where  the  projections  are  the  fields  for  tiny  palmettes. 
The  circles  (Fig.  27),  in  my  opinion,  are  conventional 
substitutes  for  the  more  organic  form,  projections 
accommodating  minor  ornaments.  Since  these 
circles  occur  in  relief  sculpture  as  well  as  in  vase- 
paintings,  they  were  perhaps  frequent  on  furniture, 
and  were  not  simply  a convention  confined  to  repre- 
sentations in  art  of  couches  and  chairs.  Occasion- 
ally the  link  appears  also  with  the  circles,  as  in  the 
case  of  Amphitrite’s  chair  upon  a cylix  from  the 
workshop  of  Euphronius  (Furtwangler-Reich- 
HOLD,  Plate  5). 

Finally,  the  double  volutes  may  be  seen  on  the 
legs  of  many  chairs  and  beds  related  in  design  to 
the  incised  types;  for  instance,  repeated  frequently 
on  the  legs  of  three  marble  thrones  in  (Munich 
(Beschr.  der  Glypt.,  Nos.  327,  346,  and  347  [here 
Fig.  47<;  and  c]).  There  is  a similar  marble  throne 
in  the  Lansdowne  Collection,  which  has  its  high  back 
preserved  (Michaklis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great 
Britain,  p.  441,  No.  20).  Cj.  a tiny  bronze  chair  in 
Cologne  (tailpiece  of  chap.  4),  and  further  remarks 
in  regard  to  these  late  designs  on  p.  91,  n.  i. 

Monuments  Piot,  Vol.  IV  (1897),  Plates  VI 
and  VJl;  Murray,  Terracotta  Sarcophagi,  Greek 
and  Etruscan,  in  the  British  Museum,  Plates  I \'. 

='  1’erkot  and  CiiiinEZ,  Vol.  VI 1,  La  Grixe  dc 
I 'epopee.  La  Grixe  archa'ique  (le  temple),  ]).  587, 
Fig.  260. 

3 Perkot  and  Chipiez,  ibid.,  Plate  IX. 


78 


STYLE 


was  present  in  the  artist’s  mind  as  a whole;"  for  the  volutes  were  represented  even 
when  perhaps  not  thought  of  as  cut  outd  The  upper  half  of  the  main  design  con- 
tains the  same  elements  as  those  in  the  capital  above,  only  that  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  legs  the  palmette  is  emphasized  and  the  volutes  are  conventionalized,  and 
on  the  ca])itals  the  volutes  are  large  and  the  palmette  small.  A pattern  taken  from 

a Alelian  vase-painting,  and  antedating  therefore  the 
earliest  known  instances  of  these  couch  legs  (although 
perhaps  not  earlier  than  the  origin  of  the  type),  affords 
an  interesting  analogy  (tailpiece,  chap.  5).  The  only 
fundamental  dift'erence  is  that  the  volutes  lie  in  a hori- 
zontal position  and  are  linked  together  vertically. 
There  are  other  variations  in  the  size  and  position  of 
the  different  parts,  but  substantially  the  same  elements 
are  present  as  in  the  design  of  the  couch  legs,  and  the 
whole  is  likewise  a complete  pattern 
of  rectangular  plan.  After  the  intro- 
duction of  the  “orientalizing”  style 
into  Greek  industrial  art, 
vases,  bronzes,  and  other 
productions  teem  with  a 
great  variety  of  combina- 
tions of  scrolls  and 
mettes,  the  scrolls 
assuming  the  form  of  volutes.  These  patterns  tc 
later  to  become  simpler.  With  the  elimination 
stop-gaps,  ornamental  designs  of  the  sort  on 
klelian  vases  and  on  these  couch  legs  are  rarer. 

Instead,  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  patterns  in  Fig.  42. — Figure  of  Hera  enthroned, 
use  are  in  borders,  either  continuous,  or  consisting  ™se-paintmg. 

of  one  or  more  small  designs  juxtaposed.^ 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out*"  that  the  volute  capitals  on  beds  and  chairs  are 


' C/.  the  early  Etruscan  example  given  in  Fig.  41. 

“ See  on  this  point  p.  45,  n.  i. 

3 The  influence  of  the  border  arrangement  is 
felt  in  many  terminal  ornaments,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  case  of  some  grave  stelae  (see  P.  Gardner, 
Sculptured  Tombs  of  Hellas,  p.  120,  Fig.  42),  where 
the  sidewise  direction  of  the  unrolling  stems  of  the 
volutes  (which  are  cut  off  without  finish  by  the 
‘-mits  of  the  slab)  is  to  be  rationally  explained  only 


on  the  ground  that  the  pattern  is  a section  from  a 
continuous  design  running  horizontally.  Cf.  also 
Olympia,  Furtwangler,  Vol.  IV,  Die  Bronzen, 
Plate  XLIII,  Nos.  762-64,  where,  as  also  in  the 
instance  mentioned  above,  the  design  seems  to  be 
taken  from  the  border  of  alternating  palmettes  and 
lotuses. 

Pechstein,  Das  ionische  Capitell,  p.  56. 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  RECTANGULAR,  INCISED  LEGS 


79 


From  a photograjih  Ijy  Romualdo  Moscioni. 


8o 


STYLE 


not  of  the  tyi)c  known  as  Ionic.  The  two  commonest  forms  on  furniture  are  shown  in 
Plate  I and  Fig.  43.'  Both  are  in  their  prominent  lines,  exclusive  of  the  abacus,  the 
halves  of  two  double  volutes  lying  adjacent  and  connected  or  not  connected  by  a link, 
whereas  the  main  lines  of  the  Ionic  capital  of  architecture  are  of  one  double  volute. 
In  Plate  I is  shown  the  form  which  is  the  more  frequent  of  the  two  just  mentioned; 
here  the  volutes  are  to  be  thought  of  as  continued  vertically,  being  parts  of  a design 
similar  to  that  on  the  lower  part  of  the  legs  of  the  couches.  In  Fig.  43,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  volutes  are  to  be  continued  in  imagination  horizontally  and  are  really 
excerpts  from  border  patterns  similar  in  j)rinciple  to  those  mentioned  in  n.  3 on 
p.  78;  a link  in  the  last  case  binds  the  two  single  volutes  together.  Both  these 
forms  seen  on  furniture  occur  also  in  a few  instances  as  capitals  of  columns — the  first 
in  a capital  from  a building  at  ancient  Ncandrcia,^  and  again  in  one  found  on  the 
island  of  Lesbos;^  the  second  in  a capital  from  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,**  one  which 
surmounted  originally  the  columnar  pedestal  of  a votive  offering.  There  is  a third 
form  of  volute  capital  which  is  unlike  the  normal  Ionic  styles.  This  is  also  known  in 
architecture,  all  the  architectural  examples  coming,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  from 
Cyprus.  From  the  field  of  industrial  art  some  small  ivory  reliefs'*  showing  the 
same  capital,  which  were  found  at  Nineveh  and  are  supposed  to  be  of  Phoenician 
workmanship,  may  be  mentioned.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this  third  type  is 
a triangle  with  side  on  the  base  line  of  the  capital  and  point  extending  up  into  the 
design.  The  stems  of  the  volutes  disappear  behind  the  point  of  the  triangle,  but 
usually  in  such  directions  that  they  could  not  possibly  converge  in  the  manner  of 
the  volutes  of  the  capital  from  Neandreia  and  its  analogues  on  furniture;  I can  see, 
therefore,  no  connection  between  these  two  types.  ^ In  many  of  the  Phoenician 

+ Ant.  Denkm.,  I,  Plate  XVIII,  3. 

5 Pkrrot  and  Chipiez,  Vol.  VII,  Phenide, 
Cypre,  p.  ii6,  Figs.  51-53;  one  of  these,  which  are 
all  in  the  Louvre,  is  repeated  in  the  Am.  Joitrn. 
Arch.,  Vol.  II  (1886),  p.  15,  Fig.  7.  I have  noted 
also  in  Vienna  and  Berlin  examples  which  are  not, 
so  far  as  I am  aware,  published.  These  Professor 
Michaelis  (Springer,  Handbuch  der  Kiinstge- 
scliiclite,  I,  “Das  AltertumV’  p.  69)  thinks  are 
distinctly  Cypriote  as  distinguished  from  Phoenician, 
but  the  ivories  found  at  Nineveh  (see  main  text 
above,  following  sentence)  are  testimony  that  the 
motives  appear  in  the  form  of  capitals  elsewhere 
than  on  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

^ Clarke,  Am.  Joiirn.  Arch.,Yo\.  II  (1886),  p.  10, 
Fig.  3- 

7 Mr.  Clarke’s  words  {op.  cit.,  pp.  ii,  12)  are: 
“They  are  essentially  the  same  as  the  early  Greek 


^ A few  other  forms  occur  sporadically.  For 
example,  in  Fig.  4 the  volutes  are  inverted;  in  other 
words,  correspond  to  the  lower  half  of  two  vertically 
lying  double  volutes.  An  instance  on  a chair 
pictured  in  an  Attic  vase-painting  (Furtwangler- 
Reiciiholt),  Plate  20)  seems  to  approximate  to 
the  form  of  the  Ionic  capital.  Again,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  palmette  varies  in  different  capitals; 
it  is  sometimes  even  omitted  altogether.  The 
beds  from  tombs  at  Eretria,  on  the  island  of  Eubcca, 
and  at  Pydna  in  Macedonia  (see  p.  28  and  Fig.  12) 
have  the  addition  of  tendrils  curling  into  the  upper 
corners  from  the  lower  part  of  the  palmettes,  and 
some  late  vases  show  similar  tendrils. 

^ Clarke,  Am.  Joitni.  Arch.,  Vol.  II  (1886), 
pp.  I ff. 

3 Koldewey,  Die  antiken  Baureste  dcr  Inset 
Lesbos,  p.  45,  Plate  16. 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  RECTANGULAR,  INCISED  LEGS 


capitals,  further,  the  volutes  seem  to  be  formed  really  of  a curved  band,  doubling 
back  of  the  stem  of  the  volutes  and  often  reappearing  above  the  triangle,  thus 
being  part  of  an  interlaced  pattern,  which,  if  imagined  continued  below  the  base 
line  of  the  capital  as  above  it,  would  be  continuous  and  unbroken.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  two  types  on  furniture,  as  has  been  stated,  may  be  reduced  to  somewhat 
simpler  ground  forms,  the  halves  of  two  double  volutes  juxtaposed  vertically  or 
laterally.  Some  of  the  Phrenician  capitals  have  the  ornament  above  the  volutes, 
corresponding  to  the  palmettes,  much  more  elaborated  than  anything  known  on 
the  two  other  types  of  capitals.  The  Phmnician  capital,  oddly  enough,  does  not 
appear  on  Greek  furniture  at  all ; apparently  it  did  not  find  favor  in  Greece. ' 

It  is  remarkable  how  many  of  the  Greek  ornamental  patterns  antedating  the 
introduction  of  the  acanthus  may  be  reduced  to  just  the  few  elements  present  on 
these  furniture  legs;  viz.,  (i)  double  volutes  with  their  stems  variously  connected, 
(2)  palmettes,  and  (3)  links  or  bands  fastening  together  certain  parts  of  the  design 
which  do  not  run  into  one  another.  By  varying  the  relative  size  and  position  of 
these  details  an  infinite  variety  of  patterns  was  obtained.^  Such  designs  as  run  dead 
into  a base  line  are  clearly,  it  seems  to  me,  halves  of  complete  patterns.  The 
most  important  motive  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  development  of  these  couches,  and 
not  represented  on  them,  is  the  lotus. 

The  earliest  examples  of  the  bed  with  curved  rests  (Figs,  ii,  44,  and  38)  are 
without  distinctive  ornament.  The  extremities  of  the  uprights  of  the  rests  run 
into  volutes.  The  bed  of  the  “ Aldobrandini  Wedding”  seems  to  have  a head- 
rest with  unornamented  upright  curling  over  above  into  a volute,  which  fact  fits 
well  into  the  theory  that  the  painting  is  a copy  of  a Greek  original,  dating  back 
perhaps  as  far  as  the  time  of  Alexander.^  All  representations  of  these  couches 
of  later  origin  than  the  fourth  century,  when  they  show  the  rests  distinctly,  have 


capital  of  Mount  Chigri  [ =Neandreia],  from  which 
they  differ  only  in  the  imperfect  spiral  of  the  volute, 
and  in  the  triangle  masking  the  convergent  lines 
at  the  base.”  See  n.  i on  this  page. 

' The  various  architectural  capitals  mentioned 
above  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  the  scroll 
motives  with  which  artistic  expression  was  perme- 
ated in  the  seventh  century.  They  represent  various 
experiments  in  the  application  to  higher  art  of  forms 
which  were  common  property,  already  long  in  use 
in  the  field  of  industrial  production.  The  fine 
artistic  instincts  of  the  Greek  architects  led  them 
to  develop  the  style  of  capital  of  which  the  double 
volute  lying  horizontally  is  the  l>asal  motive,  rather 
than  any  one  of  the  other  types  of  caj)ita!s;  for  these 


last  require  the  eye  to  complete  the  design,  or  at 
least  leave  a feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  the  abrupt 
cutting  off  of  the  stems  of  the  volutes  before  they 
arrive  anywhere.  The  style  of  the  beds  with  incised 
legs,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  represent  the  best 
results  of  which  Greek  artistic  selection  was  ca])al)le. 
Nevertheless,  even  on  furniture  the  Phoenician  type 
of  capital  was  avoided  by  the  Greeks. 

^ See  the  piece  of  bronze  applique  (tail{)iece  of 
chap.  2)  in  the  Antiquarium  of  the  Royal  IMuseums 
at  Berlin,  and  various  examjdes  given  Olympia, 
Furtwangler,  Vol.  IV,  Die  lironzcn,  I’lates  MI, 
No.  84,  XLII,  XLIII,  and  L. 

3 Robert,  in  Hermes,  Vol.  XXXV'  (igoo),  p. 
661. 


82 


STYLE 


an  animal’s  head  at  the  upper  corner  and  a medallion  ornament  at  the  lower  (c/. 
Figs.  14  and  50).  The  number  of  such  monuments  is  small/  but  we  are  neverthe- 
less better  off  for  the  study  of  this  type  of  couch  than  of  any  other  of  classical 
anticjuity,  by  reason  of  the  two  extensive  series  of  extant  specimens;  the  more  import- 
ant scries  is  of  bronze,  the  second  is  of  beds  veneered  with  bone  and  illustrates 
provincial  work.  The  earliest  extant  bronze  upright,  the  one  from  southern  Russia, 
ends  both  above  and  below  in  a medallion  with  bust  in  relief,  and  it  is  not  improb- 


able that  a medallion,  fitting  as  it  does  into  the  curves  of  a volute,  was  the  first  step 
in  elaborating  the  original  design.  Perhaps  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  the 
motive  of  an  animal’s  head  looking  sideways  was  between  the  date  of  the  St.  Peters- 
burg couch  and  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  from  which  time  there  is  a 
specimen  from  Priene,  adorned  with  a horse’s  head.  Whatever  the  exact  time  of 
its  introduction,  it  was  an  artistic  improvement,  for  the  rests  are  thus  varied  and 
their  lines  rendered  more  rhythmic.  The  sidewise  direction  of  the  curve  of  the 
rests  is  continued  in  the  animal’s  neck,  and  the  desirable  emphasis  of  the  front  of 
the  couch  is  provided  by  the  turning  of  the  face  to  view.  Part  of  a human  figure 
was  sometimes  substituted  for  the  animal’s  head,  as  in  the  case  of  a Pompeian 

' The  numerous  small  terra-cotta  couches  are  not  clear  enough  to  be  decisive. 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  CURVED  END-RESTS 


83 


couch,'  but  it  is  not  as  fortunate  a choice  and  seems  to  have  been  exceptional. 
The  human  body  does  not  accommodate  itself  as  comfortably  and  with  the  same 
appearance  of  naturalness  to  the  curve  of  the  rests  as  the  more  usual  animal’s 
head  and  neck.  With  the  neck,  however,  a great  liberty  is  taken  in  that  it  is  made 
narrow  below,  to  follow  the  curve  of  the  rests.  No  horse’s  or  mule’s  shoulders  are 
as  narrow  as  they  are  represented  in  these  bronzes  (see  Plates  XI,  XII,  and  XVI) ; 
yet  this  part  is  often  otherwise  realistically  rendered  with  collar  and  panther’s  skin. 
The  motive  is  a spirited  one,  and  in  the  case  of  the  horses’  and  mules’  heads  often 
enhanced  by  an  open  mouth.'*  Aquatic  birds  are  frequently  represented,^  and  are 
particularly  adaptable  to  the  purpose.  They  apparently  occupied  the  inferior 
positions  at  the  back  of  the  couch.  The  upper  corner  ornaments  of  other  rests, 
those  probably  on  the  front  of  the  couches,  are  the  heads  of  various  animals — 
panthers^  and  lions^  (Fig.  50),  for  instance — but  with  especial  frequency  the 
horses  and  mules.  In  literature  we  hear  of  asses’  heads,  ^ but  none  exist  among 
ancient  bronzes,  so  far  as  I can  learn.® 


' Sommer,  photograph  No.  11,120  = Mau- 
Kelsey,  Pompeii:  Its  Life  and  ArP,  p.  367,  Fig. 
188. 

^ Professor  Furtwangler  explains  this  frequent 
characteristic  of  horses  in  ancient  art  on  the  ground 
that  they  wore  very  uncomfortable  bits  (Furt- 
wangler-Reichhold,  p.  99). 

3 Swans  on  the  Pompeian  “bisellia”  now  in 
Naples  (Herculanmn  und  Pofnpeii,  Bronzen,  3d 
Series,  Plate  ?>g=Real  niuseo  borbonico,  Vol.  II, 
Plate  XXXI,  3),  and  much  more  commonly  ducks; 
cj.  Plates  X and  XVu;  cf.  also  the  analogous  motive 
on  bone  carvings  representing  the  heads  of  mer- 
gansers or  sawbills  (Graeven,  pp.  51,  52,  and 
Phot.  31). 

4 The  reason  for  thinking  this  is  that  in  the  case 
of  a number  of  bronze  attachments  consisting  of 
both  animals’  heads  and  birds’  heads,  to  be  dis- 
tributed on  one  couch  or  on  the  couches  of  one 
triclinium,  the  animals’  heads  are  always  the  more 
elaborate  and  richly  inlaid,  and  would  seem  there- 
fore to  belong  on  the  front  of  the  couches.  Cj. 
Mau,  N achrichten  von  der  kbniglichen  Gesdhchajl 
der  Wissenschajlen  zu  Gottingen,  1896,  p.  78. 

5 Brizio,  p.  445,  Fig.  8;  p.  446,  Fig.  9;  and  p. 
450,  Rig.  17. 

* Svoronos-Barth,  Das  Athener  National- 
Museum,  Plate  IX,  3. 

7juv.,  XI,  96;  Hyg.,  Fab,  274,  is  no  doubt 
correctly  emended  to  read  capita  asellorum. 


® There  seems  to  be  some  confusion  on  this 
point,  which  is  not  without  interest,  considering  the 
ancient  evidence  for  asses’  heads  (n.  7).  Dr. 
Graeven  writes;  “Bronzene  jidcra  mit  Pferde- 
beziehungsweise  Maultier-oder  Eselbiisten  sind 
nicht  eben  selten”  (Graeven,  p.  85);  and  Professor 
Anderson,  describing  some  of  the  British  Museum 
bronzes,  which  are  among  those  published  here 
(Plates  VIII-XIV),  says:  “They  all  represent  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  a mule  or  ass,  turning  side- 
ways and  backwards,  with  ears  put  down  and  a 
vicious  expression,  which  is  rendered  in  a peculiarly 
natural  manner”  {Classical  Review,  Vol.  Ill  [1889], 
p.  322).  It  is  not  clear  whether  these  writers  mean 
that  all  the  heads  are  alike,  and  they  are  uncertain 
whether  mules  or  asses  are  intended,  or  that  the 
bronzes  differ,  and  some  of  them  represent  mules’ 
heads  and  others  asses’  heads  It  seems  probable 
that  the  mule  and  ass  were  distinguished  in  ancient 
art;  the  domestic  ass  has  in  general  longer  ears,  a 
head  shorter  and  thicker  above  the  eyes  for  its 
length,  and  of  greater  size  in  proportion  to  the 
body,  than  the  mule.  In  all  of  the  bronzes  in 
([ucstion  which  I have  examined  the  conformation 
of  the  heads  appears  to  be  that  of  mules.  Cj.  the 
asses  ( ?)  on  a sarcophagus  relief  publisheil  in  the 
.Ircli.  Zeil.,  1864,  I’late  CLXXXVI,  i,  and  the 
mules  on  a sixth-century  Greek  bronze  relief 
(Schumacher,  j).  47,  No.  268,  Plate  VI,  1),  on  an 
Attic  crater  (Furtwangi.er-Reichuold,  Plate  7), 
and  here  Fig.  44. 


84 


STYLE 


44ie  horses’  and  mules’  heads  are  rendererl  with  considerable  fidelity.  They 
differ  in  artistic  value,  some  l.)cing  very  poor,  others  good.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
possibility  afforded  in  the  plates  of  comparing  a large  number  of  these  bronzes  will 
be  welcome,  even  though  in  general  the  illustrations  fail  to  do  the  bronzes  justice. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  favorable  photographs  of  heads  in  such  positions  as  these;  the 
ears,  for  example,  do  not  look  as  unnatural  on  the  bronzes  themselves  as  in  some 
of  the  illustrations.  In  Plate  XIV  it  is  clear  how  successfully  the  horses’  and 
mules’  heads  arc  differentiated.  In  {a)  and  (c)  of  this  plate,  not  only  the  patent 
distinction  in  the  length  of  the  ears,  but  the  narrower,  somewhat  shorter,  and  more 
pointed  formation  of  the  mule’s  head  below  the  eyes,  is  evident.  In  (c)  of  the  same 
plate  the  different  shape  of  the  muzzle  of  the  mule  is  plain;  it  has  a more  rounded 
gradual  curve,  more  droo])ing  lower  lip,  and  less  sensitive  nostrils  than  that  of  the 
horse  (c/.  d).  The  roached  mane  characteristic  of  mules  is  also  well  rendered. 
These  mules  are,  however,  somewhat  idealized ; in  most  cases  they  give  the  impres- 
sion of  being  nobler  animals  than  mules.  None  of  them  show  such  marked  con- 
trast to  the  horse,  as,  for  instance,  the  mules’  heads  on  the  attachment  of  a vase 
handle  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale."  The  idealization  is  aided  by  the  laying 
back  of  the  ears;  it  would  have  been  fatal  to  artistic  effects  to  represent  them  erect! 
The  “vicious  expression”  to  which  Professor  Anderson  calls  attention  (p.  83,  n. 
8)  is  marked  in  a large  number  of  these  heads;  in  Plate  VIII,  for  instance,  the  mule 
at  the  right  seems  to  be  drawing  down  his  upper  lip — a token  of  irritation  like  the 
extreme  laying  back  of  the  ears.  Other  heads,  however,  are  amiable  as  {d)  in 
Plate  XIV,  which  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  horses’  heads;  in  {a)  of  Plate  XIV  and 
{h)  of  Plate  XI  the  expression  is  a distinctly  startled  one.  Professor  Anderson 
writes  further  of  the  British  Museum  bronzes:  “The  head  is  in  almost  every  case 
decorated  with  a garland  of  vine  leaves  entwined  with  tendrils  and  bunches  of 
grapes,  while  the  shoulders  are  covered  with  a curious  leather  collar,  the  top  of 
which  is  turned  down  just  where  it  joins  the  shaggy  skin  of  some  wild  animal, 
which  is  thrown  over  it.  This  collar  seems  to  be  almost  unic|ue  in  its  kind,  and 
well  deserves  investigation,  for  it  is  evidently  borrowed  from  actual  life  and  is  of  a 
fixed  type  in  all  these  bronzes.”  Professor  Anderson  is  in  error  in  one  point:  the 
wreath  is  ivy,  not  grape.  In  Plate  XIII  it  is  very  evident  that  ivy  berries,  not 
grapes,  are  reproduced.^  It  is  of  interest  that  the  ivy  adornment  does  not  occur 
on  horses’  heads.  One  of  the  Pompeian  “bisellia”  (the  low  one)  has  mules’ 


' Cat.  des  bronzes  ant.  de  la  Bibl.  nat.,  p.  585, 
No.  1.455. 

^ Cj.  in  Monuments  Plot,  Vol.  IV  (1897),  Plate 
X,  the  case  of  ivy  twined  about  the  body  of  a bronze 
panther.  Two  branches  tied  on  the  breast  terminate 


in  clusters  of  berries  in  artistic  portrayal  identical 
with  the  berries  on  the  bronze  mules’  heads.  Cj. 
also  here  the  ivy  on  the  head  of  the  maenad  in  Plate 
XVI. 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  CURVED  END-RESTS 


heads,  which  at  present  at  least  have  no  ivy  branches;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
“bisellium”  in  the  British  Museum  (Plate  VIII).  But  the  absence  of  ivy  in  the 
case  of  mules  is  exceptional.  In  the  illustrations  given  here,  Plates  XIII,  XIVu  c, 
XV/^,  probably  also  d,  and  XVII,  all  represent  heads  of  one  type.  The  maeander 
on  the  collar,  the  shape  of  collar  and  tassel,  and  the  two  clusters  of  ivy  berries  on 
the  forehead,  one  close  to  each  eye,  are  similar  in  all  these  heads.  That  no  two, 
much  less  all  of  them,  are  from  the  same  mold,  although  they  might  well  be  from 
the  same  factory,  is  evident  from  differences  in  size,  and  other  variations  such  as 
the  angle  at  which  the  head  is  turned.  Plate  XlVb  represents  another  type;  the 
collar  is  of  different  form  and  has  ivy  ornamentation  instead  of  a maeander;  the  ivy 
on  the  head  is  without  berries  and  is  differently  arranged,  with  a curled  stem  hang- 
ing down  the  middle  of  the  face.  Unfortunately,  I cannot  throw  any  light  on  the 
peculiar  collar  to  which  Professor  Anderson  calls  attention;  so  far  as  I am  aware, 
it  occurs  only  on  these  bronze  attachments  of  beds.  If  one  could  get  hold  of  any 
considerable  number  of  other  representations  of  mules,  contemporary  with  the 
extant  ornaments  of  fulcra,  the  collar  might  be  found  to  be  peculiar  to  mules.  It 
probably  was  not  worn  by  horses,  or  it  would  occur  on  some  of  the  numerous  re])- 
resentations  of  horses  in  late  Greek  or  Roman  art.  "Phe  skin  fastened  about  the 
shoulders  of  mules  in  addition  to  the  collar,  and  separately  about  many  horses’ 
shoulders  (see  Plates  XJb,  XIIu,  XlVrf,  and  XVI),  was  probably  an  article  of 
fairly  common  use;  it  extended  also  over  the  back  of  the  animal,  thus  adding  to 
the  rider’s  comfort.  This  skin  is  present  on  the  earliest  of  the  bronze  couch  orna- 
ments representing  a horse’s  head  and  shoulders — the  one  found  at  Priene — 
which  takes  its  use  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  B.  C.,'  and  it  is 
an  occasional  equipment  of  the  riding-horse  of  Roman  date.^ 

It  is  a question  whether  there  is  any  particular  appropriateness  in  these  heads, 
or  whether  they  were  chosen  merely  because  their  decorative  effect  was  good.  1 
shall  be  able  to  show  presently  that  the  other  ornament  on  the  early  Roman  beds 
has  nothing  about  it  which  is  exceptional  for  the  period,  or  necessarily  significant. 
If  only  the  heads  of  horses  and  of  aquatic  birds  were  used  in  the  terminal  orna- 
ments, I should  reject  all  theory  of  significance.  Ducks’  heads  are  frequent  in 


* A gold  medallion  from  Tarsus  of  the  time  of 
the  emjicror  Commodus  has  on  the  reverse  Alexander 
hunting  a lion;  in  this  the  horse  wears  a skin. 
(Morgan,  Xenophon  on  Horsemanship,  p.  33, 
tailpiece  = Kopp,  Uber  das  Bildniss  Alexanders 
dcs  Grossen,  p.  3.)  However,  it  is  impossible  to 
say  whether  the  skin  was  a contribution  of  the  time 
of  Commodus  to  the  type,  or  a faithful  rendering 
from  earlier  originals  of  a feature  of  the  tra[)])ings 


of  .'Mexander’s  horse.  None  of  the  other  so-called 
ecpiestrian  portraits  of  Alexander  show  it. 

^ On  a relief  in  the  Palazzo  dei  C^onservatori, 
Rome,  from  a monument  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
(Helbig,  Fiihrcr^,  V(d.  1,  ]>.  377,  No.  550),  and 
on  another  relief  of  'I'rajanic  date  now  upon  the 
Arch  of  Constantine  (.\nder.son,  i)hotograph  No. 
2546). 


86 


STYLE 


metal-work,  notakly  as  side  attachments  to  the  handles  of  vessels  where  they  join 
the  rim,  and  horses’  lieads  have  occasional  use  as  handles  of  knives'  or  of  lamps. 
Hut  the  choice  of  a mule  for  the  most  prominent  position  in  the  ornament  requires 
some  explanation;  the  wreath  with  which  his  head,  unlike  the  horse’s  head,  is 
always  adorned  suggests  that  the  mule  had  a peculiar  significance.  Both  the  ivy 

and  the  mule  are  associated  with  Dionysus; 
Dionysus  and  his  attendants,  the  satyrs,  are 
occasionally  portrayed  in  ancient  art  riding 
mules^  (c/.  Fig.  44).  That  the  artists  should 
intentionally  introduce  a reminder  of  the  god 
of  wine  in  the  decoration  of  banquet  couches 
is  not  improbable.  The  horses’  heads  have 
no  sucli  significance,  and  it  is  accordingly 
not  strange  to  find  a preponderance  of  mules’ 
heads  among  these  bronzes.  The  ducks’ 
heads  are  also  meaningless,  but  they  were 
needed  in  ecpial  numbers  to  balance  at  the  back  the  more  elaborate  decoration  of 
the  front. 

Dr.  Graeven  calls  attention,  apropos  of  an  analogy  in  bone  carvings,  to  the 
curved  transition  wrought  in  relief  between  the  lower  ends  of  the  terminal  orna- 
ments and  the  middle  of  the  rests. ^ This  is  in  all  probability  a leaf,^  one  of  the 
circlet  from  which  the  animal’s  neck  is  conceived  as  emerging  (c/.  the  terra-cotta 
of  Fig.  45).  It  would  be  strange  indeed  if  on  such  extensively  decorated  couches 
as  these  that  which  is  perhaps  the  most  marked  peculiarity  of  Roman  ornament,  a 
combination  into  one  motive  of  both  ])lant  and  animal  forms,  were  wholly  lacking. 


Fig.  45. — Terra-cotta  handle  ( ? ). — Kestner  Museum, 
Hanover. 


' An  instance  is  cited  in  the  Cat.  des  bronzes  ant. 
de  la  Bibl.  nat.,  p.  477,  No.  1151. 

U'^RiEURiCHS,  Kleincre  Kiuist  und  Industrie  im 
Altertuin,  p.  183,  No.  723.  Unpublished  detached 
handles,  of  which  many  were  probably  fastened  to 
lamps,  e.xist  in  various  museums.  The  same  use 
has  been  suf^gested  as  possible  for  the  terra-cotta 
from  the  Kestner  Museum  in  Hanover,  given  in 
Fig.  45.  See  p.  84,  n.  2,  and  p.  107,  n.  5,  of  the 
work  there  cited. 

3 Roscher,  AuslahrUches  Le.xikon  der  grie- 
chischen  und  rbmischen  AlytJwIogie,  Vol.  I,  col. 
1095. 

4 Graeven,  p.  51.  The  passage  is  as  follows: 
“Der  bronzene  Entenhals  geht  unten  in  einen 
Btigel  aus,  mit  dem  das  Zierstiick  gleichsam  auf- 


geschoben  ist  auf  die  Holzunterlage.  Bei  alien 
Bronzezierraten,  die  den  gleichen  Zweek  wie  der 
Entenkopf  gehabt  haben,  kehrt  der  Btigel  wieder, 
doch  bildet  er  nicht  immer  einen  einfachen  Bogen, 
oft  ist  er  in  der  Mitte  geknickt.” 

5  It  has  the  same  general  shape,  broad  and 
rounded,  and  with  the  edge  curled  over  in  the 
middle,  as  that  which  occurs  frequently  in  silver 
work  and  in  sculpture,  and  seems  often  arbitrarily 
combined  to  make  blossoms.  Cj.  the  four-petaled 
open  blossoms  on  the  pilaster  from  the  tomb  of  the 
Haterii  (Wickhoff-Strong,  Roman  Art,  Plate 
VIII)  and  the  leaves  rising  from  the  lower  part  of 
some  silver  vessels  {Monuments  Riot,  Vol.  V [1899], 
Plate  IX,  and  Pernice  and  Winter,  Der  Hildes- 
heimer  Silberjund,  Plate  VI). 


ORNAMENT.  COUCHES  WITH  CURVED  END-RESTS 


87 


This  combination  takes  place  in  two  ways:  either  there  is  an  apparent  organic 
union  of  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  or  human  forms,  or,  as  here,  the  protome  of 
the  latter  issues  from  a leafy  calyx.  The  first  combination  is  perhaps  the  older;' 
at  least,  the  bronze  rest  from  Priene  affords  the  earliest  instance  known  to  me  of 
the  second,  which  in  the  years  immediately  following  Christ’s  birth  runs  rampant. 
The  facts  that  the  bed  with  curved  rests  may  be  traced  back  into  the  fifth  century 
B.  C.,  and  that  the  two  prominent  motives  of  Roman  ornament  mentioned  may 
be  seen  on  pre-Roman  monuments,  are  significant  indications  that  the  roots  of 
Roman  art  lie  in  an  earlier  period. 

The  entire  ornament  of  the  one  ancient  upright  of  the  head-rest  on  the  couch 
in  St.  Petersburg  is  cast  in  one  piece  and  is  in  relief.  This  style  of  couch  in  its 
final  development,  however,  had  plastic  adornment  at  the  two  extremities  of  the 
uprights  of  the  rests,  but  an  inlaid  pattern  on  the  curved  part  between.  The  corners 
of  the  couch  frame  were  ornamented  with  strips  of  bronze  inlaid  with  various 
patterns,  and  this  decoration  was  even  extended  in  some  cases  to  the  legs.  The 
ornaments  forming  the  upper  corner  termini  of  the  rests  have  been  fully  discussed 
in  the  preceding  pages.  At  the  lower  corners  were  always  medallions,  usually  a 
bust  with  considerable  projection,  but  sometimes  a head  or  other  design  in  low 
relief  (see  Plates  X and  XI).  Heads  of  satyrs,  of  niccnads,  and  of  Eros  are  favorite 
motives,  and  have  numerous  |)arallels  in  the  art  of  sculpture ; these  from  beds  often 
show  considerable  artistic  merit  (see  Fig.  49  and  Plate  IX).  Animals’  heads 
occur  in  this  position  also,  but  less  frecpiently  than  the  human  heads;  a pleasing 
example  is  afforded  by  one  of  the  Anticythera  bronzes,  the  head  of  a dog  of  shaggy 
type,  with  one  ear  pricked  up  and  the  other  lopping  down.^  The  satyrs’  and 
maenads’  heads  occurrmg  in  connection  with  the  heads  of  mules  strengthen  the 
theory  of  a reference  to  Dionysus.  But  taken  alone  one  would  not  attach  any 
special  significance  to  them,  for  they  belong  to  the  popular  motives  of  an  age  fond 
of  episodes  of  love  and  revelry,  and  of  light  and  playful  themes.  The  inlaid  work 
on  these  uprights  is  usually  of  fforal  patterns,  such  as  two  branches  of  myrtle  start- 
ing from  the  corners  and  having  their  tips  crossed  in  the  center  (illustrated  on  the 
“biselHum”  in  the  British  Museum,  Plate  IX). ^ But  the  “Capitolinc  biscllium” 


' For  instance,  a caryatid,  whose  drapery  runs 
out  in  foliage,  and  whose  legs  merge  into  scroll-work, 
occurs  on  a number  of  architectural  capitals. 
Examples  are:  a very  much  shattered  capital  in  the 
Pergamon  Museum,  Berlin,  which,  so  far  as  I know, 
is  unj)ublished;  another  from  Miletus  in  the  Louvre 
(Giraudon,  photographs  Nos.  1085  and  2035);  a 
third  from  Salamis  (Cyprus)  now  in  the  British 
Mu.seum  (A.  II.  S.mitii,  A Catalogue  oj  Sculpture 
in  the  Department  oj  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 


Vol.  II,  j).  264,  No.  1510,  and  Plate  XX\'II).  Mr. 
Smith  cites  examj)les  of  this  motive  dating  back  to 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  B C^. 

^ SvoRONOS-B.'Umi,  Das  Athener  National- 
Museum,  Plate  IX,  I.  .\l.so  very  poorly  given  in 
Ai(prjfj.epd  ' Apxai-o'KoyiKri,  1902,  col.  164,  Fig.  13. 

3 On  a silver  ve.ssel  (M onuments  Riot,  Vol.  \’ 
[1899],  Plate  1)  having  in  its  center  a medallion 
personifying  the  city  of  Alexandria,  there  is  a border 


88 


STYLE 


^7 


w 


» 


i\i/i)iri\ 


shows  a more  amljitious  design — a vintage  scene.  The  legs  when  inlaid  have 
wreaths  of  myrtle  or  other  ]jlants  around  the  most  prominent  part  of  some  of  the 
turnings,  and  similar  l)ranehes  on  the  lowest  member,'  that  which  covers  the  ends 
of  the  braces  at  the  lloor-level. 

Fig.  46  gives  a selection  of  designs  from  the  rails  of  couches.  These  designs 

are  made  up  of  small  elements  repeated  many 
times  in  a single  stretch  of  ornament.  Unique, 
so  far  as  I am  aware,  but  entirely  in  the  spirit 
of  Roman  art,  is  the  pattern  shown  in  Plate 
XIX.  This  is  also  from  a rail,  but  is  more  akin 
to  the  floral  decoration  of  the  middle  section  of 
some  of  the  uprights  than  to  the  designs  of  Fig. 
46.  It  has  an  approximate,  but  not  rigid,  sym- 
metry; as  can  be  discovered  on  close  inspection, 
no  two  of  the  nearly  equal-sized  divisions 
marked  off  above  and  below  the  intertwined 
stems  by  the  larger  grape  leaves  are  exactly  alike. 

The  material  at  our  dis])osal  is  not  ade- 
quate to  a study  of  the  ornament  of  late  Roman 
couches.  But  I cannot  close  this  chapter  with- 
out returning  for  a moment  to  the  cpiestions 
raised  in  the  introductory  paragraph.  I have 
not  attempted  in  this  discussion  of  style 
any  comparison  with  the  furniture  of  other 
countries  and  periods.  Nevertheless,  I 
think  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  couches 
which  have  been  considered  do  not  exhibit 
striking  merits,  warranting  us  to  claim  for  them  an  e.xalted  position  in  a history 
of  furniture,  ddiey  do  not  show  that  marked  superiority  which  is  undeniable  in 


llpWpiMpBpI 


A 

m 

*1^ 

p 

fi 

❖ 

pU 

jj^lo 

n 

Fig.  46. — Piittcrns  from  the  rails  of  couches. 


lightly  incised  immediately  below  the  rim;  this 
border  consists  of  four  branches  arranged  in  twos, 
with  stems  tied  together  by  ribbons  and  with  tips 
meeting.  'I'he  general  arrangement  of  the  branches 
and  one  of  the  two  highly  conventionalized  plants 
represented  are  closely  like  the  corresponding 
features  of  the  motive  in  riuestion  on  the  couches. 
It  is  interesting  to  see  the  motive,  with  this  difference 
that  the  branches  are  naturalistically  treated  instead 
of  being  conventionalized,  on  another  of  the  silver 
vessels  from  Boscoreale  (T’late  XVII  of  the  work 
cited  at  the  beginning  of  this  note).  Here  two  olive 


branches  form  the  decoration  of  a cup;  the  branches 
start  in  the  middle  of  one  side,  and  their  tips 
meet,  barely  touching,  in  the  middle  of  the  other 
side.  The  conventionalized  wreath  has  a pre-Roman 
history;  it  is  common,  for  instance,  about  the  rims  of 
late  red-figured  vases.  Perhajfs  the  naturalistic 
treatment  of  such  wreaths  is  distinctly  Roman. 
Cj.  Wickhoff-Strong,  Roman  Art,  pp.  34  and  56. 

' On  the  bed  from  Boscoreale  olive  branches 
adorn  the  lowest  members  of  the  legs  {Jahrb.,  Vol. 
XV  [1900],  Anz.,  p.  179). 


ORNAMENT.  LATE  ROMAN  COUCHES 


89 


contemporary  vases,  at  least  in  those  of  the  best  Greek  period.  Vases  of  the  sixth 
and  fifth  centuries  are  marvelous  in  their  beautiful  lines  and  effective  contrasts  of 
dark  and  light.  But  at  the  very  period  during  which  these  vases  were  produced 
the  couches  with  the  disagreeably  incised  legs  were  in  vogue. 

The  study  of  Greek  couches  then  teaches  that  Greek  artistic  taste  in  the 
industrial  field  was  far  from  infallible.  Nevertheless,  it  does  not  seriously  chal- 
lenge our  traditional  faith  in  the  presence  in  the  Greek  people  of  a deeply  rooted, 
all-pervading  artistic  sense.  If  we  have  found  some  features  of  design  far  from 
commendable,  we  have  yet  been  impressed  by  the  extent,  in  the  Greek  period,  of 
the  influence  upon  furniture  of  other  arts.  In  the  decoration  of  the  earlier  beds — 
those  with  rectangular,  incised  legs — the  relations  are  more  particularly  to  other 
industrial  products;  all  these — tripods,  household  utensils,  in  short,  the  common 
articles  of  every-day  use — abound  in  more  or  less  beautiful  artistic  motives.  Begin- 
ning in  the  fourth  century,  the  application  also  of  the  higher  art  of  sculpture  in 
couch  designs  is  noticeable.  The  reliefs  ornamenting  the  upper  ends  of  the  supports 
of  the  couch  represented  in  the  frontispiece  (see  also  Plate  III),  for  instance,  might 
have  been  inspired  by  the  frieze  in  the  temple  of  Phigaleia,  so  closely  do  they 
resemble  in  style  the  figures  of  that  series  of  sculptured  slabs.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  medallions  such  as  the  satyrs’  heads  of  Plate  IX  and  Fig.  49  are  probably 
derived  from  greater  works  of  sculpture.' 

The  survival  long  into  the  Roman  period  of  couches  having  sculptured  orna- 
ment is  probably  due  to  the  interest  fashionable  among  the  Romans  in  Greek  pro- 
ducts. Probably  the  manufacture  of  couches  remained  for  a long  time  in  the 
hands  of  Greek  artisans. 

The  ornamental  details  of  late  Roman  couches  are  less  well  known  to  us.  But 
this  much  is  clear:  late  couches  were  plainer  in  design  than  earlier  ones,  although 
probably  often  no  less  rich  in  materials  (see  p.  55).  They  represent  the  utilitarian 
and  practical  spirit  of  the  Romans,  and  have  accordingly  in  design  more  in  common 
with  present-day  furniture.  The  critic  who  approves  of  severity  and  simplicity 
in  articles  for  common  use  will  admire  perchance  the  Roman  couch  with  the  con- 
ventionalized dolphins  on  the  rests  {e.  g.,  Fig.  31),  rather  than  the  late  Greek  type 
which  has  more  flowing  lines  and  many  decorative  details,  each  detail  in  itself 
being  often  a charming  work  of  art. 

' Cj.  pp.  87  and  99. 


^ Cf.  p.  61,  n.  4. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  MATTER 


Frontispiece 
Plate  I 


Plate  II 


Plate  III  and 
Frontispiece 


SECTION  I 

DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 

Epontispiece. — See  under  Plate  III. 


Plate  I." — Etruscan  terra-cotta  cinerary  urn,  representing  a couch.  In  the  British 
Museum  in  Case  74  of  the  Etruscan  Saloon.  Eouncl  in  Cervetri.  Entire 
length,  59 i cm.;  height  to  the  highest  point  of  the  cover,  34  cm.  B.  M.  Ter- 
racottas, B 629.  Described  or  referred  to  here  on  pp.  16  (n.  3),  26,  45,  47, 
75  (n.  i),  and  80. 

The  cover  is  in  the  form  of  a recumbent  person  with  head  and  feet  exposed;  long 
curls  hang  down  over  the  drapery,  which  envelops  the  rest  of  the  figure.  The  supports 
have  three  parts — the  capitals,  the  legs  proper,  and  bases  of  curved  prohle  which  probably 
represent  the  ends  of  liraccs  running  through  to  the  other  side  of  the  couch.  The  tenons 
show  prominently  (f/.  pp.  42,  43). 

There  is  a similar  urn  pictured  by  Heuzey  in  RecJierches  sur  tes  tits  antiques,  p.  18, 
probably  one  of  those  in  the  Louvre.  Three  specimens  also  found  at  ancient  Caere  and 
belonging  to  the  Campana  Collection  are  exhibited  in  the  Louvre.  Of  these,  two  seem 
exactly  alike;  in  the  third  the  reclining  figure  is  somewhat  smaller.  But  the  reliefs  in  the 
example  published  here  and  in  the  three  just  mentioned  are  alike  and  may  well  be  from  the 
same  mold.  These  all  date  perhaps  from  the  close  of  the  sixth  century. 

Plate  II. — Working  drawing  for  a bed  with  rectangular,  incised  legs.  Based  on 
the  vase-painting  reproduced  in  Fig.  27.  See  pp.  45,  46. 


Plate  III  and  Frontispiece. — Terra-cotta  in  the  Louvre."  Found  in  a tomb 
at  Tanagra.  Eength,  28  cm.;  height  to  level  of  seat,  12  cm.;  to  top  of  pillow, 
17.2  cm.;  width  of  pillars,  2.5  cm.  Pictured  and  briefly  described,  Girard, 
Fig.  4385,  p.  1017.  Described  or  referred  to  here,  pp.  28,  46,  47,  68,  74,  75, 
and  89. 


' This,  Plates  VIII-XIV  inclusive,  (c)  and  (d)  of 
Plate  XV,  {b)  of  Plate  XXIX,  and  Fig.  49,  are  from 
photographs  taken  for  me  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  permission  to  use  the  material  I owe  to  the 
kindness  of  the  late  keeper  of  classical  antiquities. 
Dr.  A.  S.  Murray.  This  permission  the  present 


keeper.  Dr.  Cecil  Smith,  has  been  so  good  as  to 
confirm . 

^ I have  to  thank  Monsieur  E.  Pettier,  assistant 
curator  of  the  Louvre,  for  bringing  this  terra-cotta 
to  my  attention  and  for  permitting  me  to  publish  it. 


90 


TERRA-COTTA  FROM  TAN  AGRA.  LOUVRE 


91 


The  pillars  are  plank  constructions  and  show  in  their  ornament  reminiscences  of  the 
incised  type  of  leg.' 

The  couch  is  alike  at  the  two  ends  (a/j.(pifce<paXo‘?).  The  reliefs  which  surmount  the 
legs  are  no  doubt  ornate  substitutes  for  the  usual  volutes  of  the  rectangular,  incised  type 
(c/.  for  general  form  the  frontispiece  with  the  headpiece  of  chap.  i).  The  figures  in  low 


b c 

Fig.  47. — Various  types  of  chair  and  couch  supports. 


' The  relation  to  the  incised  type  is  at  first  sight 
more  obvious  in  some  other  rectangular  furniture 
legs  reproduced  above  in  Fig.  47  side  by  side  with 
a view  of  a leg  of  the  Louvre  terra-cotta.  The  old 
design  survives  with  greatest  fulness  in  (a).  Inci- 
sions, palmettes,  and  double  volutes  are  all  present, 
although  their  forms  have  been  somewhat  modified 
and  a few  new  elements  have  been  introduced. 
The  two  double  volutes  of  the  incisions  run  out 
above  and  below  into  other  volutes  of  S-shape;  the 
central  volutes  are  ugly,  the  projections  in  the  middle 
being  greatly  exaggerated.  The  addition  of  the 
S-shaped  volutes  results  in  a loss  of  the  straightness 
of  outline  above  and  below  the  incisions  which  was 
characteristic  of  the  older  type.  The  rosettes  at  the 
top  may  jwssibly  correspond  to  the  star  on  the  nor- 
mal type,  but  the  rosettes  in  the  middle  and  at  the 
bottom  are  additions,  d'he  medallion  with  head 
also  occurs  on  other  late  examjjles,  but  never  earlier 
(c/.  the  instance  in  a vase-j)ainting  mentioned,  p.  28, 
n-  ,I). 

In  (b)  the  disintegration  of  the  design  character- 
istic of  the  rectangular,  incised  legs  is  farther  ad- 


vanced. Here  the  ornament  no  longer  forms  a 
single,  unified  pattern,  the  various  elements  of  which 
pass  into  one  another  without  interruption;  rather, 
it  is  broken  up  by  horizontal  lines  into  three  parts. 
In  the  central  part  there  is  a survival  of  the  incised, 
double  volutes.  S-shaped  volutes  a[>pear  above  and 
below,  but  not  as  in  (a)  growing  out  of  the  central 
volutes.  The  two  palmettes  are  present,  but  are 
likewise  disconnected  from  one  another  and  from 
the  remainder  of  the  design. 

In  (c)  there  is  the  triple  division  of  the  leg  hori- 
zontally as  in  (b),  without,  however,  a reminder  in 
the  middle  division  of  volute  incisions.  On  the  con- 
trary, double  volutes  without  projections  or  hori- 
zontal links  (see  p.  76,  n.  2,  second  paragraj)h) 
edge  the  ujiper  and  lower  divisions.  The  scheme  of 
ornament  in  (c)  is  really  a combination  of  two 
derivatives  of  the  rectangular,  incised  ty]>e.  These 
derivatives  are  rej)resentcd  (i)  in  (b),  which  (c) 
resembles  in  the  triple  horizontal  division,  and  (2) 
in  the  tail])iece  of  chaj).  4,  which  (c)  is  like  in  the 
repetition  of  the  double  volutes.  On  the  chair 
shown  in  the  tailpiece  mentioned  the  double  volutes 


92 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


relief  arc  here  purely  ornamental,  without  subject  significance/  They  are  remarkably 
beautiful  for  work  on  such  a small  scale  and  in  such  rude  material;  unfortunately  the  illus- 
trations fail  to  do  them  justice,  either  artistically  or  in  bringing  out  details.  The  relief  at 
the  left  end  of  the  couch  (Plate  Ilia)  represents  a woman  moving  rapidly  to  the  right. 
She  wears  an  ungirded  Doric  chiton  which  has  an  overfold  reaching  below  the  waist.  The 
chiton  has  become  loosened  on  the  right  shoulder  and  has  slipped  down,  exposing  her 
right  breast.  She  holds  in  each  hand  a corner  of  a mantle  which  falls  from  her  head  and 
forms  a background  for  her  figure.  The  head  is  seen  in  profile,  looking  down  and  back- 
ward. Her  hair  is  waved  over  her  forehead  and  is  adorned  with  a fillet  The  other  relief 
(Plate  Ill/i)  represents  a youth  moving  to  the  left.  He  is  nude  except  for  a chlamys  which 
is  fastened  by  a round  brooch  under  his  chin  and  floats  out  behind.  His  form  is  lithe 
and  energetic,  although  of  stalwart  jiroportions.  His  hair  is  effectively  rendered  as  if  blown 
back  by  the  wind.  These  two  reliefs  were  formed  separately  and  then  attached  to  the 
terra-cotta. 

The  interest  and  charm  of  the  terra-cotta  are  greatly  increased  by  the  remains  of  color 
upon  it  (frontispiece).  Red  has  been  the  most  enduring  color.  It  filled  in  the  volutes 
carved  on  the  pillars.  The  background  of  the  reliefs  on  the  rail  and  of  the  figures  sur- 
mounting the  pillars  was  solidly  red.  Zigzags  and  rows  of  circles  on  the  rail,  maeanders 
("not  visible  in  the  illustration),  and  stripes  on  pillows  and  seating  were  also  red.  Other 
bits  of  this  vivid  color  may  be  seen  on  the  tails  of  the  dolphins  and  the  lips  of  the  masks 
adorning  the  rail.  Considerable  blue  is  still  clear  in  the  furnishings  of  the  couch,  meanders, 
dots  set  in  rows,  wave  patterns,  and  stripes,  all  in  blue,  being  included  in  the  designs  of 
these  richly  colored  stuffs.  There  are  traces  of  gilding  visible  on  the  hair  of  the  mask  to 
the  right,  and  of  white  in  various  places  on  the  terra-cotta;  undoubtedly  the  little  couch 

originally  had  much  more  gilding  and  more  white  color. 

The  terra-cotta  must  be  thought  of  as  representing  a structure  with  an  interlacing, 

which  may  well  have  been  fastened  in  the  same  manner  as  the  interwoven  leather  strands 

reproduced  in  the  marble  fragment  from  Pergamon  (Plate  V and  p.  65,  Fig.  34);  the  inter- 
laced surface  was  thus  at  a slightly  lower  level  than  the  to]>  of  the  rails.  A long  and  narrow 
tapestry,  admirably  rendered  in  the  terra-cotta,  fitted  exactly  in  width  and  thickness  the 
space  inclosed  by  the  side-rails  and  the  interlacing,  thus  making  the  whole  surface  of  the 


have  not  lost  the  original  form  seen  in  the  Assyrian 
prototype  (Fig.  39).  Each  of  the  two  larger  divi- 
sions of  (c)  contains  further  an  adaptation  of  the 
traditional  arrangement  of  palmettos. 

Finally  in  (d)  the  departure  from  the  incised 
type  is  very  great.  All  feeling  for  the  cut-out, 
double  volutes  is  lost.  Toward  the  top  is  repre- 
sented a winged  creature  with  single  head  and  two 
bodies,  which  is  unique  as  a motive  on  the  legs  of 
couches.  Nevertheless  the  horizontal  divisions  con- 
necting {d)  with  the  designs  in  {h)  and  (c),  the 
S-shaped  volutes  establishing  a relation  to’(a)  and 


(h),  and  the  plank-like  appearance  of  the  legs  prove 
that  (d)  also  is  a derivative  from  the  rectangular, 
incised  type. 

^ Probably  they  are  excerpts  from  some  compo- 
sition, representing  a definite  scene,  which  was 
within  the  repertory  of  the  designer  of  the  terra- 
cotta. But  scenes  in  which  appear  fleeing  or  pur- 
suing women  and  youths  are  too  numerous  to 
permit  us  to  name  the  particular  one  to  which  we 
owe  these  reliefs. 


FRAGMENTS  OF  MARBLE  COUCH  FROM  P ERG  AM  ON 


93 


couch  even,  as  it  appears  in  the  frontispiece,  and  contributing  to  the  comfort  of  the  occu- 
pants. This  covering  was  drawn  up  over  the  end-boards  and  fell  half-way  to  the  floor, 
with  corners  hanging  still  lower.  The  cushions  were  also  covered  with  a richly  colored, 
striped  material,  and  were  furnished  with  tassels  at  each  corner. 

The  couch  is  to  be  dated  chiefly  on  grounds  of  style  and  belongs  in  all  probability 
somewhere  between  the  close  of  the  fifth  and  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  I am 
inclined  to  place  it  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C.' 


Plates  IV- VI. — Two  fragments  of  a marble  couch. ^ Found  in  the  Library  piates  iv-vi 
attached  to  the  precinct  of  Athena  Polias  at  Pergamon,  and  therefore  probably 
dating  from  the  reign  of  the  builder  of  the  Library,  Eumenes  II.  (197-159 
B.  C.).  Now  in  the  Pergamon  Museum  in  Berlin.  One  piece,  represented 
in  two  views  in  Plates  IV  and  V,  is  55  cm.  high  and  about  25X20  cm.  on  top; 
the  other  (Plate  VI)  is  26  cm.  long,  15  cm.  high,  and  15  cm.  wide.  Briefly 
described  in  the  small  official  Fiihrer  (lurch  das  Pergamon-Musenm,  p.  45. 

Mentioned  here,  pp.  16,  32,  64,  65,  and  69. 

The  interlacing  of  the  one  piece,  the  pillow  of  the  other,  and  the  valance  appearing  on 
both  identify  these  blocks  at  once  as  parts  of  a couch.  Many  features  of  the  original  monu- 
ment are  clear  from  what  remains.  It  had  the  interwoven  filling,  cushion  at  one  end  and 
richly  figured  valance  just  referred  to,  an  ornamented  rail,  and  at  least  at  one  upper  corner  a 


^ We  have  seen  that  the  wide  rails  occur  in 
the  case  both  of  chairs  and  couches  on  late  red- 
figured  ware  (p.  49  and  n.  i);  and  we  have  found 
evidence  for  the  existence  in  Attica,  at  least  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  of  couches  with 
the  two  ends  alike,  although  they  were  apparently 
only  coming  in  then  and  did  not  become  common 
until  later  (pp.  26  and  28).  The  poses  of  the 
two  figures  in  relief  do  not  aid  us.  The  striding 
attitude,  with  one  leg  bent  at  the  knee  and  the 
other  nearly  straight,  and  often  with  the  face 
turned  away  from  the  direction  of  movement,  as 
in  the  case  here  of  the  girl,  is  very  common  in 
Greek  relief  sculpture  from  the  archaic  period 
down  to  the  Neo-Attic  school.  (C/.,  for  instance, 
the  girl’s  figure  in  the  center  of  the  front  side  of  a 
sarcophagus  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery;  Amelung,  Fiihrer, 
j).  24,  No.  27=Alinari,  j)hotograph  No.  1313.) 
I'hc  i)roj)ortions  of  the  figures  in  relief  on  the 
terra-cotta  are  perhajrs  significant  of  a date  before 
the  introduction  by  Lysipjms  of  a new  canon.  It 
is  jirincipally  for  this  reason  that  I have  suggested 
above  a date  between  the  years  350  and  325  H.  C. 
Yet  even  here  caution  must  be  exercised,  since  the 


figures  in  question  are  on  so  small  a scale,  are  of 
humble  material  and  were  made  in  a place  removed 
from  the  center  of  the  influence  of  Lysippus. 
Modifications  of  the  design  seen  on  rectangular, 
incised  legs  are  found  as  early  as  the  fifth  century 
(p.  27)  and  are  frequent  in  the  fourth  century  (p. 
28);  the  pattern  of  the  legs  of  this  terra-cotta,  how- 
ever, has  features  in  common  with  that  of  the  legs 
of  chairs  assigned  to  the  Roman  period,  and  one 
would  like  therefore  to  place  these  as  late  as  possible. 
Finally  the  find-spot,  Tanagra,  according  to  the 
views  prevalent  at  present,  is  favorable  to  setting 
the  date  of  this  terra-cotta  after  350  B.  C.  (See 
B.  M.  Terracottas,  Introduction,  jqi.  XXXIX, 
XL.) 

^ My  obligation  is  great  to  Geheimrath  Kekule 
von  Stradonitz,  director  of  the  Department  of  Classi- 
cal Antiquities  of  the  Royal  Museums  in  Berlin,  for 
calling  my  attention  to  these  marble  fragments  aiul 
allowing  me  to  j)ublish  them.  My  thanks  are  due 
to  him  also  for  the  photograjflis  reproduced  in  (/>) 
of  Plate  VII,  in  {a)  and  [h)  of  Plate  XVq  in  Plate 
XXVIII,  and  in  the  tailj)iece  of  chap.  2. 


94 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLA  TES 


griffin  support  instead  of  an  ordinary  couch  leg.  If  we  look  closer,  it  is  evident  that  these 
are  end-pieces,  and  that  they  cannot  belong  to  the  same  end  of  the  couch.  In  the  side- 
view  of  the  one  (Plate  IV)  are  folds  indicating  the  drawing  up  of  the  valance  to  a corner, 
and  in  the  top-view  (Plate  V)  of  the  same  block  small  portions  of  the  frame  show  on  two 
sides.  The  other  fragment  (Plate  VI)  is  clearly  from  a corner,  and  the  low  cushion  or  pillow 
distinguishes  it  as  belonging  to  the  head  of  the  couch.  In  the  fragment  from  the  foot  of 
the  couch,  owing  to  the  unfortunate  breaking  off  of  the  corner,  the  nature  of  the  support  at 
the  lower  end  is  not  apparent,  but  it  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  like  that  at  the  head. 
The  valance  and  ornamented  rail  would  naturally  have  been  on  the  front  of  the  structure. 
The  main  points  of  doubt,  then,  are  whether  the  couch  was  hnished  all  around  or  was 
designed  to  stand  against  a wall,  and  therefore  left  plain  behind,  and  how  the  griffin  sup- 
ports and  the  ends  otherwise  are  to  be  restored. 

In  case  the  couch  was  finished  all  around,  the  two  long  sides  were  no  doubt  alike, 
and  there  were  griffin  supports  at  all  four  corners.  But  if  it  stood  against  a wall,  and  it 
was  accordingly  appropriate  in  the  design  to  emphasize  the  front  as  distinguished  from 
the  back,  it  is  very  possible  that  there  were  legs  of  one  of  the  ordinary  forms  at  the  back 
{cf.  the  instance  of  less  ornate  legs  at  the  back  of  the  Vathia  funerary  couch.  Fig.  38).  There 
are,  however,  two  other  possibilities,  in  case  the  couch  stood  against  a wall:  one  is  that 
since  the  couch-form  had  merely  a surface  rendering  upon  a solid  block  of  marble,  and 
therefore  supports  at  the  back  were  not  constructionally  essential,  these  supports  were 
omitted  altogether;  the  second  is  that  up  to  the  wall  on  both  ends  the  couch  was  hnished 
like  one  designed  to  stand  out,  visible  on  all  four  sides. 

The  griffins  faced  outward.  They  may  have  been  crouching  or  standing,  their  bodies 
being  carved  in  relief  along  the  ends  of  the  bed;  their  tails  would  then  probably  have  formed 
an  S-shaped  curve,  with  ends  apparently  helping  to  support  the  rail  of  the  couch.  But 
there  is  another  plausible  restoration;  that  is,  after  the  manner  of  the  supports  of  the  marble 
tables  (cartihula)  seen  in  the  alria  of  Pompeian  houses  {e.  g.,  Fig.  48).  In  these,  only  the 
head,  wings,  and  a portion  of  the  body  of  the  griffin  are  represented;  below,  the  body  passes 
into  one  huge  leg  with  claw-foot.'  Other  more  or  less  elaborate  designs  fill  in  the  space 
between  the  two  opposite  supports. 

Our  main  interest,  however,  is  not  in  this  marble  couch  as  such,  but  in  it  so  far  as  it  is 
a translation  into  stone  of  contemporary  real  couches.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the 


' It  is  unfortunate  that  the  Pergamene  fragments 
are  indecisive  on  this  point.  One  would  like  to 
know  whether  this  kind  of  griffin  support  which  was 
common  in  the  Roman  period  in  work  in  marble  was 
in  use  in  the  Hellenistic  age.  Certainly  there  are 
similar  combinations  of  very  ancient  origin.  For 
instance,  the  archaic  Etruscan  sarcophagus  of  terra- 
cotta in  the  British  Museum  rests  upon  supports  (see 
the  detail  of  this  sarcophagus  given  in  Fig.  41),  which 
consist  each  of  the  upper  part  of  a sphinx  or  siren 
passing,  without  leaves  or  other  forms  to  disguise 


the  incongruity,  into  a heavy  claw-foot.  This 
hybrid  is  analogous  to  the  older  of  the  two  combina- 
tions of  plant  and  animal  forms  (see  p.  87)  in  the 
one  respect  that  the  two  parts  in  the  two  classes  of 
motives  appear  to  be  organically  united.  The 
various  Greek  and  Roman  decorative  motives  in 
which  mythological  animals  or  other  unreal  com- 
binations of  animal  forms,  as  well  as  vegetable  and 
animal  forms  together,  appear,  would  repay  extended 
study  and  analysis. 


FRAGMENTS  OF  MARBLE  COUCH  FROM  PERGAMON 


95 


interlacing,  valance,  and  ornate  frame  are  not  marble  forms.  For  all  of  these,  analogies 
can  be  found  in  representations  of  what  were  certainly  ordinary  beds  or  couches  in  use 
in  interiors.  But  the  griffin  support  in  the  representation  of  a bed  is,  so  far  as  I know, 
unique.'  This  may  be  mere  chance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  the  griffin  was 
introduced  in  this  case  by  the  designer  because  particularly  appropriate  to  work  in  marble. 
Besides  the  Pompeian  examples  in 
marble  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  animal  supports  are  numer- 
ous in  relief  sculpture,  in  small  bronzes, 
and  in  terra-cottas.^  It  is  perhaps 
possible  to  explain  them  as  fanciful 
conceits,  or  as  miniature  copies  of  cult 
statues  in  bronze  or  marble,  rather  than 
as  modeled  on  common  household 
furniture.  Certainly  animal  supports 
made  out  of  wood  or  bronze  would 
render  an  indoor  article  of  common 
use  heavy  and  unwieldy,  whereas 
solidity  in  effect  and  in  actual  weight 
are  desirable  in  marble.  Further,  the 
distribution  of  the  apparently  support- 
ing members  is  a matter  of  indifference  (except  to  artistic  feeling)  where  these  members 
are  carved  or  cast  in  relief  and  the  real  burden  is  borne  by  the  solid  background.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  of  some  forms  seen  on  the  monuments  as  practical  in  the  round  even 
in  bronze.  In  the  case  under  consideration,  the  constructional  difficulty  of  connecting 
the  end-rail  with  the  side-rail,  which  seems  to  lie  at  a slightly  lower  level  (Plate  VI),  is  in 
favor  of  the  view  that  the  griffin  is  an  introduction  into  the  design  as  adapted  to  work  in 
marble. 

The  rails  seen  in  Plates  IV-VI  undoubtedly  represent  wooden  construction,  but  it  is 
not  so  clear  whether  the  ornament  on  the  front-rail  and  the  griffin  support  were  of  wood 
or  of  bronze,  if,  contrary  to  the  view  set  forth  above,  the  griffin  was  a feature  of  an  actual 
couch  which  served  as  a model  to  the  worker  in  marble.  There  is  a sharpness  of  relief  in 
the  palmette  depicted  on  the  rail  ( Plate  VI)  which  suggests  that  this  palmette  was  an  a{)plied 


Fig.  48. 
Pompeii. 


-Marble  table  in  the  atrium  of  the  “ House  of  Meleager,” 


’ Cj.  p.  II2,  n.  27. 

^ There  is  in  the  Archaeological  Museum  in 
Florence  a terra-cotta  cinerary  urn  in  the  form  of  a 
seated  life-size  figure;  the  supports  of  the  chair  of 
this  figure  are  sphinxes  facing  to  the  front  witli 
wings  clasped  about  the  sides  of  the  chair.  In 
numerous  small  terra-cottas,  as  well  as  in  larger 
works  in  marble,  rcfiresenting  Cybele  seated,  lions 
occupy  a similar  position  (see  RKtNACii,  Repertoire 
de  la  statuaire  grecque  cl  romainc,  Vol.  I,  pp.  182-85). 


Two  bronze  female  figures  in  the  British  Museum 
stand  on  stools  that  have  animal  suiiports;  these 
supports  are  in  the  one  case,  No.  493  in  the  Etruscan 
Saloon,  lions;  in  the  other,  a fifth-century  Greek 
bronze  (Bulletin  de  correspondance  hcllenique,  \'ol. 
XXII  [1898],  Plate  I),  they  are  pegasi.  fragment 
of  a relief  from  Rhodes  representing  Serapis  and 
Isis,  which  is  also  in  the  British  Mu.seum,  shows  a 
chair  with  sphinx  su])|)ort  extending  in  relief  on  the 
side.  These  examples  might  be  multiplied. 


96 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


ornament  of  metal  rather  than  one  carved  in  the  wood  of  the  rail.  Moldings  like  the  one 
forming  at  the  top  a transition  from  the  rail  to  the  interlacing  (p.  65  and  Plate  V)  serve 
a similar  purpose  for  the  decorative  panels  on  the  side  of  the  rail,  curving  from  the  surface 
of  the  rail  to  the  ground  of  the  sunken  panels. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  these  marbles  is  the  representation  of  a valance. 
From  the  appearance  of  the  folds,  the  valance  is  to  be  thought  of  as  of  fairly  heavy  stuff, 
and  probably  as  woven  rather  than  embroidered,  possibly  as  the  kind  which  at  a later  date 
was  exported  to  Italy  and  used  on  mattresses  (r/.  p.  71  and  n.  12).  I have  found  no  other 
valance  e([ually  elaborate  in  design,  unless  it  is  the  one  of  different  character  on  the  little 
terra-cotta  from  Egypt  })ictured  in  Plate  Vila.  In  vase-paintings  a plain  border  and 
polka-dots  or  rosettes  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  valance  are  common,  and  rows  of 
animals,  as  in  the  headpiece  of  chap.  4,  are  occasional.  Here  the  pattern  is  in  horizontal 
registers  containing  a great  variety  of  common  and  uncommon  motives.  Beginning  at  the 
top  (Plate  IV),  the  first  register  after  the  break  in  the  stone  contains  two  varieties  of  rosettes, 
alternating  and  placed  in  squares.  Both  these  rosette  forms  are  closely  composed  and  have 
a small  circle  in  the  center.  One  is  made  up  of  four  broad  leaves  with  the  rounded  ends 
outward  and  tendrils  between  the  leaves.  The  other  is  formed  of  four  leaves  pointed  at 
the  outer  extremities  and  broad  in  the  middle,  with  rays  occupying  the  space  between  them. 
(C/.  Plate  VI,  where  one  of  the  rosettes  made  up  of  ])etals  with  rounded  ends  is  visible 
just  below  the  rail.)  The  next  register  shows  a somewhat  narrower,  running  tendril 
design,  of  a kind  known  from  the  Mycenaean  periocP  down  to  Roman  times.  Then  comes 
the  widest  field  of  the  entire  valance.  The  preserved  portion  of  it  is  occupied  by  a tripod 
(tall,  with  claw-feet,  and  no  doubt  to  be  thought  of  as  made  of  bronze)  and  a griffin.  Both 
wings  of  the  griffin  show;  his  head  is  turned  looking  back,  his  left  paw  is  raised,  and  his 
tail  curves  up  over  his  back.  There  was  doubtless  a second  griffin  in  a corresponding 
position  on  the  other  side  of  the  tripod.  The  next  design  is  unusual  in  Greek  art,  although 
a common  one  on  Assyrian  monuments  (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Vol.  II,  Chaldee  et  Assyrie, 
Figs.  41, 42,  86, 102, 104-7, 1 1 2, 1 18,  359,  and  Plate  XIV).  Its  position  here  should  be  noticed, 
for  it  is  properly  an  upper  terminal  border.  For  instance,  it  is  the  regular  upper  finish  of 
braziers  of  bronze  of  the  Roman  period.^  Almost  the  same  motive  is  seen  in  Moorish  art, 
the  only  difference  being  that  the  line  connecting  the  steps  in  the  Moorish  type  is  no  longer 
vertical,  but  is  a diagonal  turning  inward. ^ The  next  register  below  is  nearly  as  wide  as 
that  containing  the  griffin  and  tripod.  In  it  parts  of  sea  monsters  may  be  made  out — to 
the  left,  a sinuous,  scaly  body;  to  the  right,  the  fore  feet  and  head  of  some  sea  creature. 
Next  comes  a very  graceful  variety  of  the  alternating  palmette  and  lotus  pattern;  in  this  the 
component  parts  of  the  palmettes  have  the  ends  curved  in.  Below  this  is  the  familiar 


‘ Cj.  Riegl,  Stdjragcn.  Gnuidleguiigeii  zu  einer 
Geschichte  der  Ornamentik,  on  “Die  Entstchung  der 
Ranke,”  pp.  113  ff. 

^ Examples  in  Lyons,  France  (Catalogue  som- 
maire  des  ntusees  de  la  ville  de  Lyon,  j)p.  229,  230, 
Fig.  70)  and  in  Naples  (Mau-Kelsey,  Pompeii:  Its 


Life  and  Art^,  p.  377,  Fig.  207,  and  Real  niuseo  hor- 
bonico,  Vol.  II,  Plates  XLVI,  2,  and  LIV). 

^ E.  g.,  a parapet  around  the  tops  of  buildings, 
such  as  the  Mosque  of  Cordova,  and  the  upper  bor- 
der of  the  mosaic  of  tiling  which  occupies  the  wall- 
space  below  the  plaster  work  in  the  Alhambra. 


TERRA-COTTA  FROM  EGYPT.  BERLIN 


97 


astragal  of  Greek  art,  and  then  a design  which  is  far  from  clear.  Finally,  there  are  traces 
of  a fringe. 

Not  only  is  this  work  remarkable  as  picturing  an  elaborate  valance,  but  it  is  rare  as  an 
attempt  to  render  in  marble  a figured  stuff.  The  one  other  notable  example,  aside  from 
the  mattresses  of  marble  sarcophagi  in  couch  form,  is  the  more  beautiful  sculptured  piece 
of  drapery  from  Lycosura  in  the  National  Museum  at  Athens.  This  last  has  the  same 
horizontal  divisions  and  indications  of  fringe  and  some  similar  decorative  motives — as  the 
sea  monsters.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  existence  of  such  similar  work  in  the  Pergamon 
couch  is  favorable,  so  far  as  it  goes,  to  dating  the  Lycosura  marbles  in  the  second  century 
B.  C.' 


Plate  Vila. — Terra-cotta  in  the  Egyptian  Department  of  the  Royal  Museums  Plate  viia 
at  Berlin.^  Verz.  der  dgypt.  Altert.%  p.  280,  No.  13,696.  Mentioned  here, 
pp.  62  (n.  4)  and  69. 

That  a bed  is  represented  is  clear  from  the  indications  of  an  interlacing  in  paint  upon 
its  upper  surface.  The  design  of  the  valance  has  a broad  central  division  and  two  narrow 
side  divisions.  In  the  center  is  a goddess^  standing  in  a boat  and  holding  in  each  hand  a 
lotus  flower  with  long  stem.  The  side  divisions  are  occupied  by  grotesque  figures  of  the 
god  Bes.  Although  the  patterns  of  the  valance  are  distinctly  Egyptian,  this  style  of  couch 
was  unc|uestionably  brought  into  Egypt  through  foreign  influence. ^ The  rude  terra-cotta 
reproduces  imperfectly  the  form  of  a bed  which  no  doubt  had  rectangular  legs  at  the  front 
as  at  the  back,  and  was  of  plank  construction  similar  to  that  of  Eig.  25.  The  valance  may 
well  have  extended  also  along  the  sides. 

There  is  no  means  of  fixing  with  certainty  the  date  of  this  terra-cotta.  The  fifth- 
century  analogy  just  noted  (Eig.  25)  is  favorable  to  placing  it  also  in  the  fifth  century. 

Yet,  except  perhaps  for  the  extremely  high  proportions,  this  simple  form  might  well  occur 
later.  Eigures  of  Bes  were  especially  popular  in  the  Roman  period,  but  as  representations 
of  this  god  arc  known  even  from  the  New  Empire  of  Egyptian  history,  their  occurrence  on 
the  valance  is  no  hindrance  to  a tentative  dating  of  the  terra-cotta  in  about  the  fifth 
century  B.  C. 


' A recent  utterance  in  regard  to  this  much- 
disputed  point  is  by  Mr.  A.  M.  Daniel  (/.  //.  S., 
Vol.  XXIV  [1904],  pp.  41  ff.),  in  favor  of  a date  in 
the  fourth  century  B.  C. 

^ I am  indebted  to  Professor  Adolf  Erman,  direc- 
tor of  the  Egyptian  Department  of  the  Berlin 
Museums,  for  permission  to  reproduce  this  terra- 
cotta as  well  as  to  use  the  following  material;  the 
terra-cotta  of  Plate  XXIXa,  the  Egyptian  couch 
whose  rail  is  given  in  Eigs.  32  and  33,  and  the  frag- 
ment of  Egyf)tian  faience  pictured  in  Fig.  13. 

i Professor  J.  II.  Breasted,  of  the  University  of 


Chicago,  has  kindly  called  my  attention  to  the 
resemblance  of  this  figure  to  the  Syrian  goddess 
Kcdesh  (c/.  Maspero,  Struggle  oj  the  Nations,  p. 
159),  and  to  the  fact  that  a purely  Egyptian  divinity 
would  hardly  be  represented  in  full  front  view. 

Late  Egyjitian  couches,  known  in  small  terra- 
cottas similar  to  the  one  of  Plate  Vdlu,  have  lions’ 
legs;  these,  unlike  the  claw-feet  of  non-Egyptian 
furniture,  which  usually  turn  out,  are  placed  as  an 
animal’s  legs  are,  all  directed  forward.  Egyjitian 
couches  are  very  low;  further,  they  have  footboards, 
but  instead  of  headboards  small  rests  to  lit  under 
the  neck. 


98 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


Plate  viih  Plate  VIT/l’ — Terra-cotta  from  southern  Italy.  In  the  Antiquarium  of  the 
Royal  Museums  at  Berlin.  Height,  12  cm.  Cf.  Kekule  von  Stradonitz, 
Die  antiken  Termkotten,  Vol.  Ill,  Winter,  Die  Typen  der  figiidicJien  Terra- 
kotten,  p.  206,  No.  9,  where  a replica  is  pictured  and  a third  e.xample  cited, 
both  also  in  the  Berlin  Anticjuarium.  Mentioned  here,  pp.  29  and  68. 


Plates  viii-x  Plates  VIII-X.^ — Parts  of  a couch  restored  as  a seat.  In  the  British  Museum. 

Height  of  present  structure,  48  cm.;  width,  30  cm.  Uprights  of  fulcra,  from 
tops  of  mules’  heads  to  outer  edges  of  medallions,  28  cm. ; diameter  of  medal- 
lions, 5.7  cm.  B.  M.  Bronzes,  p.  330,  No.  2561.^  Mentioned  here,  pp.  32, 
50,  83  (ns.  3,  8),  84,  85,  87,  and  89. 

United  in  this  scat  are  parts  of  a couch  of  the  type  with  curved  rests.  By  lengthen- 
ing the  rails,  placing  the  uprights  of  the  fulcra  in  their  proper  position  above  the  rails,  those 
with  mules’  heads  in  front,  and  those  with  ducks’  heads  (Plate  X)  at  the  back,  restoring 
the  wooden  parts  which  once  connected  the 
uprights,  removing  the  unwarranted  braces  from 
leg  to  leg,  and  using  their  bronze  casings  for  the 
back  corners  of  the  rails,  and  supplying  finally  at 
the  ends  the  floor-level  braces  of  wood  which  are 
implied"^  by  the  form  of  the  lowest  members  of  the 
legs,  the  ancient  couch  in  approximately  its  origi- 
nal appearance,  exclusive  of  interlacing  and  fur- 
nishings, would  be  recovered. 

The  winged  heads  of  the  medallions  (Plate 
X)  in  low  relief  which  were  on  the  back  of  the 
couch  are  similar  to  (or  identical  with  ?)  heads  on 
the  so-called  “biscllia”  in  Naples. ^ The  medal- 
lions of  the  front  of  the  couch  (see  Plate  IX  and 
a slightly  different  view  in  Fig.  49)  are  especially 
worthy  of  attention.  They  represent  youthful, 
laughing  satyrs.  Little  horns  growing  from  the  foreheads,  pointed  ears,  and  small  protu- 
berances on  the  neck  mark  them  as  satyrs.  The  fawn-skins  over  their  left  shoulders  and 


' See  p.  93,  n.  2. 

^ See  p.  90,  n.  i. 

3 By  some  oversight  the  erroneous  statement  has 
crept  in  that  the  mules’  heads  of  the  fulcra  are 
adorned  with  vine-wreaths. 

Otherwise  the  turned  legs  would  certainly  end 
in  slender  members.  This  guide  has  been  correctly 
followed  in  supplying  the  floor-level  braces  of  the 
couch  from  Boscoreale,  now  in  Berlin  {JaJirb.,  Vol. 


XV  [1900],  Anz.,  p.  178,  Fig.  i).  On  many  bronze 
legs  of  couches,  as  on  those  of  Plates  VIII  and 
XVIII,  in  the  process  of  restoration,  the  openings 
intended  to  receive  the  ends  cf  the  wooden  braces 
have  been  closed  with  metal. 

5 Real  mitseo  borhouico,  Vol.  II,  Plate  XXXI,  3. 
According  to  Amelung,  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XVII 
(1902),  p.  270,  n.  I,  one  at  least  of  these  “bisellia” 
has  now  been  reconstructed  as  a bed. 


BRONZES  IN  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM 


99 


ivy  crowning  their  heads  are  also  appropriate  to  satyrs.  The  firm  flesh  of  the  cheeks,  heaxy 
brows,  modulations  of  the  forehead,  broad  nose,  curve  of  the  lips,  and  above  all  the  rollick- 
ing, irresponsible  expression  are  well  rendered  in  these  bronzes.  These  heads  are  interest- 
ing as  compared  with  similar  types  known  in  sculpture,  such  as  the  superb  bronze  head 
in  Munich  {BescJir.  der  Glypt.,  p.  369,  No.  450)  and  the  marble  one  in  the  Louvre, 
reproduced  in  Reinach,  Recueil  de  tetes  antiques  ideates  ou  ideal isees,  Plate  261. 

The  bronze  and  marble  heads  mentioned  are  Hellenistic  work,'  but  these  bronzes 
resembling  them  are  not  necessarily  of  contemporary  date.  Indeed,  if  the  same  rule  holds 
good  in  small  bronzes  that  has  been  recognizecP  in  the  case  of  marble  sculpture,  the  form 
of  the  satyrs’  busts  of  Plate  IX,  showing  as  they  do  so  much  of  the  arms  and  breast, 
indicates  that  they  were  made  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  or  of  Hadrian.^ 


Plates  XI  and  XII. — Bronze  uprights  of  the  fulcra  of  couches.  In  the  British  Plates  xi  and  xii 
Museum.  The  inlaid  patterns  formerly  filling  the  frame  (c/.  Plate  VIII) 
are  now  lost.  B.  M.  Bronzes,  p.  331,  XMs.  2563-67.  Mentioned  here,  pp. 

32,  83,  84,  85,  and  87. 

Plate  XIa  and  b (=  Nos.  2567,  2566)  are  alike  in  size,  42.5  cm.  from  the  top  of  the  head 
to  the  outer  edge  of  the  medallion,  and  are  probably  from  the  front  and  back  of  the  same 
couch.  No.  2566  is  said  in  the  catalogue  (B.  M.  Bronzes)  to  have  on  a bridle;  there  is  cer- 
tainly none  now  present  on  the  bronze,  .'\bout  the  horse’s  neck  is  a panther’s  skin,  as 
frequently  in  these  bronzes,  not  a collar  terminating  in  a dog’s  head,  as  suggested  in  the 
catalogue.  The  disk,  similar  to  that  of  {a),  which  once  ornamented  the  medallion  of  (6), 
has  been  lost. 

Plate  Xlla  ( = No.  2565).  Diagonal  dimension  taken  as  above,  28  cm.  Feminine 
bust,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  upright,  distinguished  as  Artemis  by  the  quiver  visible  above 
the  right  shoulder. 


' Professor  Furtwangler  assigns  the  Munich 
bronze  to  the  Alexandrian  period,  and  M.  Reinach 
thinks  that  the  marble  in  the  Louvre  may  be  an 
original  of  Pergamene  or  Rhodian  workmanship. 

^ By  P.  Bienkowski.  See  Revue  archeologique, 
Series  3,  Vol.  XXVII  (1895),  pp.  214  and  293 
-97- 

3 I have  not  been  able,  with  the  material  at  my 
command,  to  work  out  the  chronology  of  the  various 
bronze  attachments  of  couches.  One  other  point 
besides  the  different  forms  of  the  busts  should  be 
mentioned  which  may  be  indicative  of  differences  of 
date.  This  is  the  varying  shape  of  the  frame  of  the 
uf)rights  at  the  outer,  lower  corners,  oj)posite  the 
medallions.  There  are  two  distinct  forms  notice- 
able. In  one,  represented  in  Plates  VIIl-X  and  in 
Plate  XXI,  the  molding  runs  out  in  an  acute  angle 
and  then  turns  back  on  itself,  forming  an  inner 


acute  angle.  In  the  other  form  the  corner  is  not 
so  attenuated,  and  the  upright  strip  of  molding  ter- 
minates upon  the  lower  strip  in  a tiny  volute  (Plates 
XI,  XII)  or  simply  passes  into  the  lower  strip  with 
a preceding  slight  inward  curve  (Plate  XVI).  But 
that  these  corner  forms  are  to  be  considered  chrono- 
logical peculiarities  is  not  the  only  explanation  which 
may  be  offered.  It  is  equally  possible  that  this 
detail  is  the  same  in  bronzes  issuing  from  one  fac- 
tory, and  that  the  forms  mentioned  were  in  use 
simultaneously  in  different  cities  or  workshops.  In 
either  case  the  matter  is  of  interest.  There  is  a 
chance,  it  seems  to  me,  by  using  these  bronzes  which 
exist  in  such  abundance  as  a starting-point,  to  arrive 
at  some  interesting  conclusions  in  regard  to  the 
chronology  and  common  place  of  production  of 
many  objects  of  Roman  industrial  art. 

See  p.  90,  n.  i. 


lOO 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


Plate  XII ( = No.  2564).  Diagonal  dimension,  34  cm.  The  medallion  contains  an 
unattractive  head  of  Eros  with  childish  chubby  cheeks  and  open  mouth;  the  front  hair  is 
gathered  into  a topknot,  and  there  are  small  wings  with  recurved  tips.  Around  the  neck 
is  a heavy  garland  similar  to  that  seen  on  the  medallion  of  bone  in  Plate  XXII. 

Plate  XIIc  ( =^No.  2563).  Diagonal  measurement,  27  cm.  Cast,  as  the  two  jrreceding, 
all  in  one  piece,  including  the  medallion.  The  holes  for  attachment  to  the  wooden  parts 
of  the  jiilcnuH  arc  5 mm.  in  diameter;  the  bronze  nails  are  still  clinging  in  some  of  them. 
A head  of  Eros  adorns  the  lower  end;  in  this  case  the  god  is  apparently  represented  as  a 
half-grown  lad. 


Plates  xiii,  XIV,  Plates  XIll,  XIV,  AND  ((/)  OF  Plate  XV."-— Upper  corner  ornaments  of  fulcra 

a^d^  {d)  oj  Plate  which.  Contrary  to  the  technical  method  pursued  in  the  case  of  the  uprights 
of  jiilcra  represented  in  the  preceding  plates,  were  cast  separately,  and  have 
thus  become  detached.  Now  in  the  British  Museum.  In  B.  M.  Bronzes,  p. 
330,  Nos.  2562j_5,  six  mules’  heads  are  briefly  described.  I am  unable  to 
correlate  the  statements  with  the  individual  bronzes  represented  here,  except 
that  No.  25623  = Plate  XlV/n  Alentioned  here,  pp.  33,  50,  84,  and  85.  In 
these  heads  the  eyes  were  in  whole  or  in  part  inserted  of  another  material,  and 
the  inserted  portions  have  in  many  cases  dropped  out.  The  collars  were  more 
or  less  richly  inlaid  with  silver. 

Plate  xva  and  b Plate  XVu  AND  hU — Upper  coHier  omaments  of  fulcra.  In  the  Antiquarium  of 
the  Royal  Aluseums  at  Berlin.  The  duck’s  head,  (u),  bears  the  miscellaneous 
inventory  number  3771  and  is  from  Pompeii.  The  mule’s  head,  (b),  is  pub- 
lished by  Professor  Pernice  in  the  JaJirh.,  Vol.  XIX  (1904),  Anz.,  p.  30,  Fig. 
36.  I have  rejjeated  it  here,  since  the  photograph  reproduced  in  Plate  XVb 
gives  a slightly  different  view  of  the  head,  and  since  the  representation  of  a 
ring  in  the  mouth  for  the  attachment  of  a leading-rein  is  unique  among  these 
bronzes.  Professor  Pernice  calls  attention  to  the  particularly  careful  work- 
manship on  this  head.  The  ivy  adorning  it,  as  in  many  previous  cases,  is 
wrought  out  in  high  relief,  parts  being  completely  detached  from  the  ground. 
"Phe  eyes  were  of  silver  inserted,  with  the  pupils  inlaid  in  another  material. 
The  pattern  of  the  collar  was  also  once  inlaid  with  silver.  Mentioned  here, 
PP-  33.  83  (n-  3)>  and  85. 

Plate  xvc  Plate  XVc." — One  of  two  busts  of  boys.  Probably  a lower  corner  ornament  of 
the  fulcrum  of  a couch.  In  the  British  Museum.  Height,  10.2  cm.  B.  M. 
Bronzes,  p.  273,  No.  1717.  Hair  very  thick  and  wavy;  that  of  the  upper  part 


' See  p.  90,  n.  r. 


“ See  p.  93,  n.  2. 


BRONZES  IN  VIENNA,  PARIS,  AND  LYONS 


lOI 


of  the  head  gathered  into  a topknot.  Childish  features  of  peculiar  type,  the 
lower  face  being  heavy,  the  cheeks  fat,  lips  small  and  full,  nose  broad  and 
stubby,  and  eyes  set  wide  apart. 

Plate  XVd. — See  above.  Plates  XIII,  etc.  piate  xvd 

Plate  XVI.' — Bronze  upright  of  the  fulcrum  of  a couch.  In  the  Kunsthistorisches  Plate  xvi 
Hofmuseum  in  Vienna,  Room  XIII,  Case  IX,  No.  749.  Diagonal  measure- 
ment from  top  of  horse’s  head  to  outer  edge  of  medallion,  15  cm.  Cast  in 
one  piece,  except  for  the  filling  (now  lost)  of  the  frame  between  the  two  ter- 
minal ornaments.  Provenience  unknown.  Mentioned,  pp.  32,  83,  84  (n.  2), 
and  85. 

The  feminine  head  of  the  lower  ornament  is  marked  as  that  of  a mgenad  or  possibly  of 
Ariadne  by  the  wreath  of  ivy.  Less  is  seen  of  the  shoulders  and  bust  than  in  the  instances 
in  the  preceding  plates.  The  hair  above  the  forehead  is  parted  in  the  middle;  in  the  neck 
it  hangs  in  long,  wavy  locks.  The  horse’s  head  of  the  upper  end  of  the  bronze  has  the  fore- 
lock gathered  into  a tuft.^  A panther’s  skin  is  placed  about  the  shoulders. 


Plate  XVII. ^ — Two  bronze  mules’  heads  from  the  uprights  of  the  fulcra  of  a Plate  xvii 
couch.  Found  at  Vienne,  France.  In  the  Louvre,  in  the  Thierry  Collection, 

Nos.  48  and  49.  Height,  12.5  cm.  Mentioned,  pp.  33  and  85. 

Plates  XVIII  and  XIX. — Parts  of  a couch  restored  as  a seat.  In  Lyons.  The  piates  xviii  and 
entire  structure  as  it  now  appears  is  given  in  Plate  XVIII,  a detail  from  one 
rail  in  Plate  XIX.  Height,  55  cm.;  width,  98  cm.  Found  at  Jallieux,  near  to 
Bourgoin  (Isere),  in  1848.  Catalogue  sommaire  des  musees  de  la  ville  de  Lyon, 
p.  229,  No.  71.  Mentioned  here,  pp.  8,  88,  and  98  (n.  4). 

Unless  the  bronze  uprights  of  one  or  two  fulcra  have  been  lost,  we  have  here  the  j)arts 
of  a middle  couch,  which  in  a triclinium  requires  no  end-rest  (cf.  p.  33).  In  Plate  XVIII, 
by  close  inspection,  the  entire  pattern  on  the  lower  corner  strip  to  the  left  may  be  made 
out.  There  are  two  rosettes  at  each  extremity:  two  vines,  one  ivy,  the  other  grape,  start 
from  each  end  and  run  intertwined  toward  the  center,  where  they  terminate  each  side  of  a 
central  lozenge.  (Cf.  p.  88.)  Details  of  the  pattern  and  the  present  corroded  condition 
of  the  bronze  are  clearly  shown  in  Plate  XIX. 


‘ My  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  Rolrert  von 
Schneider,  curator  of  classical  antiquities  in  the 
Imperial  Museums  of  Vienna,  for  permission  to 
jjublish  this  bronze  and  for  the  photograph  repro- 
duced in  this  plate. 

“ See  in  regard  to  the  forelock  arranged  in  a tuft, 
.Morgan,  Xenophon  on  Horsemanship,  j).  175,  note 
on  p.  44. 


3 Reproduced  from  a photograph  taken  at  my 
reipiest  by  M.  Giraudon,  with  the  kind  permission 
of  the  authorities  of  the  Louvre. 

•*  From  photographs  taken  at  my  recpiest  by  M. 
Silvestre,  of  Lyons,  with  the  kind  consent  of  M. 
Dissard,  curator  of  classical  antiejuities  in  the  Lyons 
Museum. 


102 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLA  TES 


Plates  A'A'-A'A'T7  Plates  XX-XXVI. — Funcrarv  couch  found  in  a tomb  at  Orvieto  some  time  pre- 
vious to  the  year  1896,  when  it  was  accjuired  by  the  Field  Columbian  Museum 
of  Chicago.'  The  restoration  was  made  in  Italy  by  Campanini.^  The 
museum  records  contain  only  the  further  statement  that  at  the  time  of  finding 
the  bone  parts,  having  fallen  away  from  the  wooden  frame,  were  lying  in  lines 
and  heaps,  and  were  gathered  by  the  excavators  into  bags.  Probably,  there- 
fore, all  the  antique  parts  of  the  present  structure  were  found  in  one  tomb 
chamber,  d'he  modern  parts  are  numerous,  consisting  of  the  frame  of  wood, 
much  of  the  mosaic  of  plaster  and  bone  covering  this  frame,  some  entire  figures 
in  bone,  and  patches  on  the  carvings  in  both  bone  and  plaster.  Mentioned, 
pp.  32,  56-58,  75  (n.  5),  99  (n.  3),  and  100. 

The  original  design  of  the  couch  has  been  discussed  on  pp.  56-58.  It  remains  here 
to  consider  details  and  to  determine  as  far  as  possible  what  anticjue  carvings  now  on  the 
couclr  are  foreign  to  the  original  structure,  probably  having  belonged  on  some  other  object 
or  objects  deposited  in  the  tomb  chamber.  In  the  accompanying  plates^  examples  are 
given  of  the  various  classes  of  carved  ornament  represented  on  the  present  couch.  An 
enunreration  of  all  the  carvings  follows: 

T.  Two  pairs  of  medallions  with  heads  in  high  relief.  Height,  9.7  cm.  One  pair  given 
in  Plates  XXI  and  XXII. These  heads  are  all  of  one  type,  the  only  difference  between 
the  two  pairs  being  in  the  bust.  In  the  one  pair  it  was  adorned  with  a garland  (Plate  XXII) ; 
in  the  other  it  had  a garment  draped  over  one  shoulder  as  in  Plate  XXI,  where  the  bust  is 
modern,  but  is  restored  from  the  other  pair  of  medallions.  The  heads  of  each  pair  are 
symmetrical,  one  being  turned  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left.  In  the  case  of  the 
two  with  drapery,  the  latter  is  over  the  left  shoulder  of  the  one  figure  and  over  the  right 
shoulder  of  the  other. 

2.  Four  lions’  heads  of  a single  type.  Height,  11.4  cm.  Plate  XXIII. ^ 


' I wish  here  to  express  my  thanks  to  the  authori- 
ties of  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  for  permitting 
me  to  publish  this  bed. 

^ See  chap.  2,  p.  57,  n.  i. 

3 Plate  XX  is  from  a jihotograph  taken  when  the 
bed  was  still  in  Italy.  As  the  bed  is  too  fragile  to 
be  moved  readily,  and  is  now  inclosed  in  a case,  I 
was  unable  to  get  a better  general  view  of  it.  The 
views  of  details  reproduced  in  Plates  XXI-XXVI 
were  made  by  the  museum  photograj)her,  Mr.  C.  H. 
Carpenter,  who  succeeded  admirably,  considering 
the  difficulties  of  unfavorable  light  on  some  parts 
of  the  bed  and  the  necessity  of  working  through 
glass. 

4 The  bust  of  Plate  XXI  is  restored,  without, 
however,  wings,  which  should  just  fill  out  the  circle 
of  the  medallion  (c/.  Graeven,  Phot.  54).  The 
chin,  top  of  head,  back,  right  side  piece,  and  bits 


on  front  of  bust  of  Plate  XXII  seem  to  be  renewed; 
the  wings,  made  up  partly  of  old,  partly  of  new 
pieces,  are  much  too  large  and  spreading.  The 
figure  of  Plate  XXII  shows  in  the  general  view  of 
the  bed,  Plate  XX;  the  two  medallions  framed  in 
moldings  (in  part  antique)  to  the  right  and  left 
are  themselves  wholly  modern.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  bed,  in  the  middle,  is  one  medallion  of 
the  other  pair,  also  provided  by  the  restorer  with 
large,  spreading  wings.  This  has  the  medallion 
shown  in  Plate  XXI  on  the  left  and  its  own  com- 
])anion-piece  similarly  framed  on  the  right. 

5  The  left  ear,  the  mane  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
top  of  the  head  have  been  renewed.  The  three 
other  heads  have  been  more  or  less  patched  and  the 
eyes  repainted.  C/.  Plate  XX;  these  four  lions’ 
heads  now  occupy  positions  between  the  medallions 
and  the  corners  on  the  long  rails  of  the  couch. 


FUNERARY  COUCH  OF  BONE  FROM  ORVIETO 


103 


3.  A series  of  figures  carved  in  relief.  These  are  on  panels  10.4  cm.  high,  having  a 
slightly  curved  surface  and  joints  cut  radially.  Their  width  varies  slightly,  from  4 to 
4.8  cm.^  Plates  XXIV-XXV.^  The  following  have  enough  antique  parts  to  guarantee 
them: 

a)  Three  panels  bearing  a horn  of  plenty  above  and  a diminutive  putto  below.  On 
the  lower  part  of  the  horn  is  visible  a hand  holding  it,  and  filling  in  the  space  beside  it  is 
an  arm.  The  putto  is  looking  back  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in  which  he  is  walk- 
ing. Of  the  three  preserved  specimens,  two,  in  which  the  putto  is  walking  to  the  right, 
are  alike,  and  the  third  is  exactly  reversed. 

h)  Three  figures  walking  and  looking  in  the  same  direction  with  a garment  draped 
about  one  leg  and  drawn  up  over  the  shoulder  on  the  same  side,  also  passing  in  a roll  across 
the  other  thigh.  Of  these,  two  are  moving  to  the  right  and  have  the  drapery  mostly  on 
the  left  side  of  the  figure,  the  third  is  moving  to  the  left  and  has  the  drapery  on  the  right 
side. 

c)  Eleven  figures,  nude  except  for  a very  slight  scarf-like  drapery  passing  over  one 
shoulder  and  under  the  other  arm  with  end  hanging  down  from  the  shoulder;  heads  and 
legs  turned  in  opposite  directions.  Of  these,  five  are  moving  to  the  right  and  six  to  the 
left,  and  the  figures  of  the  two  sets  are  in  every  way  symmetrical. 

d)  Parts  of  four  torches  and  hands  holding  them. 

4.  One  lion’s  head.  Somewhat  smaller  (height,  9.9  cm.)  than  those  of  (2)  and 
differing  slightly  in  stylistic  details.  Plate  XXVI. ^ 

In  the  light  of  the  evidence  presented  in  chap.  2,  pp.  56  ff.,  it  seems  reasonably  certain 
that  the  original  couch  had  curved  rests  at  each  end  with  the  medallions  of  (i)  at  their  lower 
extremities,  and  that  the  carvings  of  (3)  were  on  the  legs.  It  is  not  so  clear  how  the  fulcra 
appeared  otherwise,  or  how  the  carvings  enumerated  under  (2)  and  (4)  were  originally 
used.  The  filling  of  the  curve  of  the  uprights  of  the  fulcra  between  the  two  terminal  orna- 
ments is  certainly  lost;  this  would  have  been  cither  a plain  covering  of  bone  or  an  ornament 
flatly  executed — incised  or  carved  in  very  slight  projection — analogous  to  that  of  some 
bronze  uprights  of  fulcra  (cf.  Plates  VIII-X).  The  upper  corner  ornaments  of  the  fulcra 
are  also  gone,  unless  they  be  some  of  the  lions’  heads.  Those  of  (2)  are  of  the  proper 
number  to  suit  this  position,  and  their  similarity  to  one  another  corresponds  to  the  resem- 
blance between  the  medallions,  the  two  pairs  of  uprights  then,  in  case  the  lions’  heads 
occupied  the  position  in  question,  having  been  almost  exactly  alike.  The  heads  of  other 


' This  is  not  surprising,  as  it  was  probably 
occasioned  by  the  varying  size  of  the  bones  at  the 
disposal  of  the  workman. 

^ Plate  XXIV  seems  entirely  antique,  except  the 
right  arm  and  the  triangle  between  the  legs  of  the 
figure  on  the  left.  In  Plate  XXV  the  jirincipal 
restorations  are  the  arms,  right  leg,  and  triangle  of 
the  figure  to  the  right,  the  lower  j)art  of  the  cornu- 
copia, and  the  entire  smaller  figure  to  the  left. 


3 Tip  of  nose  and  part  of  mane  next  the  head  on 
the  right  and  the  whole  of  the  mane  on  the  left  seem 
to  have  been  renewed.  Cf.  Plate  XX,  which  shows 
this  head  as  now  situated  in  the  middle  of  an  end- 
rail.  In  a corresponding  jiosition  on  the  other  end- 
rail  is  an  impossible-looking,  draped  half-figure, 
which  on  examination  ])roved  to  be  chiefly  plaster. 
1 can  make  nothing  of  the  few  pieces  of  bone  which 
are  incorjxirated  into  it. 


104- 


D I SC  U SSI  ON  OF  PLATES 


animals  than  horses  and  mules  occur  as  the  upper  corner  ornaments  of  jukra  (cf.  Fig.  50), 
so  that  there  is  no  objection  on  the  score  of  their  being  lions’  heads  to  the  proposed  restora- 
tion. If  these  lions’  heads  were  so  used,  their  necks,  now  lost,  as  well  as  tips  of  leaves  form- 
ing a transition  to  the  moldings  below,  no  doubt  filled  out  the  usual  scheme.  In  technic, 
then,  the  ujiper  ornaments  would  represent  a stage  in  the  use  of  bone  between  carving  in 

the  round,  as  the  heads  of  the  Ancona  beds  arc  executed, 
and  low  relief,  represented  in  other  ornaments  from  the 
upper  corners  of  jiilcra  (sec  p.  58).  Here  the  projection  is 
considerable,  but  the  heads  arc  nevertheless  not  finished 
at  the  back  and  are  to  be  attached  to  a ground. 

The  single  smaller  lion’s  head  does  not  find  any 
possible  place  in  the  original  design  as  just  sketched. 
Besides  this  carving,  I doubt  also  whether  the  bronze 
shoes  (visible  in  Plate  XX)  belong  to  the  original  struct- 
ure. They  arc  a feature  not  present  on  the  Norcia  and 
Ancona  couches,  and  there  is  a more  serious  objection  to 
supposing  that  they  belonged  on  a couch;  the  bronzes 
themselves  have  a slight  curve  which  makes  them  an 
inappropriate  and  ill-fitting  termination  of  straight  legs. 
This  curve  is  more  pronounced  in  a specimen  in  the 
Kestner  Museum,  Hanover,  given  in  Fig.  51.^  In  Zan- 
noni,  Scavi  della  Certosa,  Plate  XIX,  42,  is  an  attempted 
reconstruction  of  a piece  of  furniture  having  such  shoes. 
The  cut  is  reproduceeP  in  Schumacher,  p.  55,  apropos 
of  two  examples.  Nos.  320  and  321,  in  the  Karlsruhe 
Museum.  Both  Zannoni  and  Dr.  Schumacher  call  the 
article  of  furniture  a table.  But  tables,  so  far  as  I am 
aware,  in  both  the  Greek  and  Roman  periods  had  upright 
legs  with  claw-feet  or  other  animals’  feet,  at  least  never 
crossed  legs,  as  in  this  restoration.  Zannoni’s  drawing  looks  exactly  like  the  stool  with 
crossed  legs  of  compound  curve  which  ap}>ears  as  early  as  on  south-Italian  red-figured  vases 
(Fig.  52)  and  soon  superseding  the  Greek  ocladias  with  legs  ending  in  lions’  or  deers’  feet  is 


Fig.  50. — Part  of  a terra-cotta  cinerary  urn 
— Palermo. 


' I have  to  thank  the  director  of  the  Kestner 
Museum,  Dr.  Schuchhardt,  for  the  photograph 
reproduced  above,  as  also  for  that  of  Fig.  45.  The 
bronze  is  16  cm.  high,  with  a lower  diameter  of 
3.5  cm.  The  left-hand  prong  has  been  broken  off 
at  a little  less  than  half  its  height  and  is  fastened 
again  in  place;  the  ball-like  object  at  its  upper  end 
on  the  rivet  passing  to  the  other  prong  is  modern 
cement.  The  British  Museum  has  a similar  speci- 
men, not  included  in  the  catalogue  of  bronzes,  so 
far  as  I can  find.  It  measures  5.8  cm.  to  the  top 


of  one  of  the  lower  prongs  (the  higher  prongs  are 
broken  off  above)  and  3.7  cm.  in  diameter  at  the 
lower  end.  Within  are  remains  of  wood,  a part  of 
the  furniture  leg  to  which  it  was  once  attached; 
this  is  proof  that  the  shoe  was  not  at  the  end  of  a 
metal  rod  such  as  perhaps  always  formed  the 
strength  of  the  legs  of  bone  (c/.  p.  55,  n.  9). 

^ Also  in  Montelius,  La  civilization  primitive 
en  Italic  depiiis  V introduction  des  midaux,  Part  I, 
Plate  102,  15. 


FUNERARY  COUCH  OF  BONE'^FROM  ORVIETO 


105 


frequent  on  monuments  down  to  a late  Roman 
period.'  Now,  these  stools  are  the  only  pieces  of 
furniture  having  the  legs  ending  below  in  a curve 
which  the  bronzes  would  fit ; the  stools  vary  among 
themselves  in  proportions,  to  judge  by  the  monu- 
ments, some  being  tall  enough  to  render  the  lower 
curve  as  slight  as  that  of  some  of  the  preserved 
bronze  shoes.  Zannoni’s  restoration  therefore, 
apart  from  the  name  applied  to  it,  is  probably 
correct,  although  I am  unable  to  cite  any  certain, 
ancient  representations^  of  the  bronze  shoes  in 
place.  The  probability  of  the  identification  is 
further  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  at  least  two 
cases^  round  ornaments  have  been  found  with  the 
shoes,  such  as  the  monuments  show  at  the  crossing 
of  the  legs  of  many  folding  ( ?)4  stools.  This  brings 
me  to  the  suggestion  that  the  tomb  chamber  in  which 
this  funerary  bed  was  found  may  have  contained 
such  a stool  veneered  in  bone,  with  the  smaller 
lion’s  head  (Plate  XXVI)  and  another  like  it,  not 
preserved,  at  the  crossing  of  the  legs,  and  the  two 
pairs  of  bronze  shoes  protecting  the  lower  ends  of 
the  legs.  Fig.  52  from  a red-figured  vase  of  south 
Italy  shows  a stool  of  this  type  with  a human  mask 
at  the  intersection  of  the  legs,  and  lions’  masks  are 
ecjually  suitable  to  such  a position. 

It  is  possible  to  make  out  with  considerable 
assurance  the  arrangement  of  the  carvings  on  the 
legs  of  the  original  couch  through  the  aid  afforded 
by  the  symmetry  observable  in  the  preserved  pieces. 

Pig.  51. — Bronze  shoe  from  a stool. — Kesbicr  ^ ^ ^ 

Museum.  Hanover.  To  tum  back  to  (3)  it  will  be  at  once  clear  that 


' For  example,  a bronze  statuette  in  the  Louvre 
seated  on  sucli  a stool  (Reinach,  Repertoire  de 
la  statuaire  grecque  et  romaine,  Vol.  II,  p.  686,  i; 
clearer  in  Giraudon’s  photograph.  No.  114  [series 
of  bronzes  in  the  Louvre]),  likewise  an  Etruscan 
scaraba-us  (Baumeister,  Vol.  Ill,  Fig.  1839),  a 
marble  statue  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  No. 
28,218,  and  a small  bronze  figure  in  the  British 
.Museum  (B.  M.  Bronzes,  No.  849  = Reinach,  ibid., 
p.  630,  2).  That  these  stools  continued  long  in  use 
is  jmived  by  their  occurrence  on  Christian  sar- 
cophagi, as  on  two  in  the  Lateran  Museum  (.\Ios- 
cioni,  jihotographs  Nos.  6759  and  2916).  'Fhese 
succe.ssors  of  Greek  folding  stools,  although  having 
their  chief  features  of  design  in  common,  differ  in 


some  particulars  among  themselves;  but  this  is  not 
the  place  to  enter  into  such  details. 

^ The  bronze  statuette  in  the  Louvre,  cited  at  the 
beginning  of  the  previous  note,  ami  some  others,  do 
indeed  show  on  stools  a profile  which  at  the  floor-level 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  bronze  shoes,  but  I have  never 
discovered  the  longer  and  shorter  jirongs  characteris- 
tic of  these  bronzes  in  any  ancient  re])roductions. 

■I  I refer  to  the  specimens  in  Karlsruhe  and  to 
others  found  by  Zannoni.  For  references  see  p.  104. 

In  many  instances,  at  least,  the  stools  have  a 
wide  rail  which  would  prevent  their  folding.  67- 
Fig.  52,  where  there  is  not  only  a wide  rail,  but  an 
ornament  filling  in  the  triangle  formed  by  rail  aiul  legs. 


io6 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


the  three  carvings  enumerated  under  {a)  imply  a fourth  now  lost,  and  similarly  in  the  case 
of  {b).  The  hgures  of  (<r)  must  have  numbered  sixteen  originally,  for  six  of  each  kind 
would  not  divide  up  so  as  to  preserve  the  symmetry  on  four  couch  legs.  This  gives,  then, 
for  each  leg:  one  panel  with  a cornucopia  and  a small  figure  with  feet  turned  to  right  or  left; 
one  of  a draped  hgure,  moving  either  to  the  right  or  left ; four  of  the  nearly  nude  hgures, 

two  with  feet  directed  to  the  left  and  two  with  feet  directed 
to  the  right;  and  hnally  one  })anel  with  a hand  holding  a 
torch  on  it  in  some  position — seven  in  all.'  The  diagram 
in  Fig.  53  shows  the  probable  arrangement  of  these  carvings 
on  two  front  legs.  They  were  no  doubt  placed  with  refer- 
ence to  the  long  sides  of  the  couch,  corresponding  in  that 
respect  to  the  decorations  of  the  julcra.  The  arrows  indi- 
cate the  directions  in  which  the  figures  are  supposed  to  be 
moving,  and  the  letters  correspond  to  the  enumeration  under 
(3).  Since  {b)  by  reason  of  the  drapery  and  its  single  occur- 
rence is  especially  marked,  it  naturally  belongs  to  the  center 
of  the  composition.  The  panel  of  the  (b)  class  seen  in  Plate 
XXIV  joins  perfectly  with  the  adjacent  panel  having  the 
cornucopia;  these  two,  then,  belonged  together  and  occu- 
pied the  most  conspicuous  position  on  the  legs  and  the  four 
panels  of  (c)  fall  into  place  on  each  side.  The  joint  between 
(c)  and  {a)  where  the  hgures  are  moving  to  the  left  is  assured  in  one  case  (not  given  in  the 
plates)  which  helps  in  the  distribution  of  the  panels,  showing  that  the  direction  of  move- 
ment was  toward  the  back  panel  {d).  This  last 
may  have  had  a column,^  tripod,^  or  altar,  and 
probably  stood  for  the  goal  of  the  procession, 
the  most  interesting  point  of  which  is  shown 
in  the  group  on  the  front  of  the  legs.  The 
torch  I assign  to  this  panel  because  there  is  no 
room  for  it  on  any  of  the  others;  it  was  in  all 
probability  held  by  one  of  the  adjacent  figures 

of  the  (c)  class.  Crude  as  the  work  is  in  execution,  the  composition  is  not  bad.  The  break 
in  the  direction  of  march  between  (c)  and  (b)  is  not  displeasing,  because  (c)  is  looking  back 
at  {b).  There  is  unity  in  the  central  composition,  the  little  figure  is  walking  in  the  same 


Fig.  52. — Darius  enthroned, 
from  a vase-painting. — Naples. 


Detail 


FRONT 


Fig.  53. 


' This  result  is  confirmed  by  such  apjtroximate 
calculations  as  I have  been  able  to  make  from  the 
dimensions  of  the  panels.  On  the  basis  of  4.4  cm. 
width,  seven  panels  would  form  a circle  of  nearly 
12  cm.,  which  is  a very  probable  diameter  for  the 
legs  of  a Roman  bed  at  their  widest  parts. 

C/.  two  other  sets  of  similar  carvings  which 
probably  served  the  same  purpose.  The  first  set 


was  published  by  Brunn,  Ann.  d.  I.,  1862,  Plate  P 
= Brunn  and  Bulle,  Heinrich  Brunn' s kleine 
Schrijten,  pp.  122  ff.,  and  lately  in  part  in  Graeven, 
Phot.  55.  These  are  now  in  the  Museo  delle 
Terme  in  Rome.  The  second  series,  in  the  Berlin 
Anticpiarium,  is  poorly  given  in  Gerh.vrd,  Elrus- 
kiscJie  Spiegel,  Vol.  I,  Plate  XIV.  In  Graeven, 
p.  Qi,  n.  2,  it  is  announced  that  the  Berlin  carvings 
are  soon  to  be  discussed  in  the  Jahrb. 


FUNERARY  COUCH  OF  BONE  FROM  ORVIETO 


107 


direction  as  the  larger  one,  acting  as  a support  to  his  companion’s  arm  which  holds  the  heavy 
cornucopia.  At  the  same  time,  a connection  with  (c)  is  established  by  the  hand  of  the 
figure  of  (c)  on  the  head  of  the  little  figure,  and  the  turning  of  the  gaze  of  the  (c)  figure 
back  to  the  central  group.  Each  of  the  other  two  (c)  figures  next  to  {d)  is  looking  back  at 
the  companion  wdro  follows  him. 

A series  of  similar  carvings  in  Berlin'  has  four  figures  draped  exactly  like  those  of  the 
Orvieto  couch,  also  panels  with  horn  of  plenty  and  small  putto.  Dr.  Graeven^  recognizes 
in  the  principal  figure  the  youthful  Dionysus.  The  case  for  a Dionysiac  interpretation  is 
strengthened  there  by  the  occurrence  of  the  thyrsus  on  several  of  the  other  panels  of  the 
series.  But  the  torch  is  also  connected,  although  less  frequently,  with  Dionysus. ^ And 
since  grapes  are  conspicuous  in  the  filling  of  the  cornucopia  here  as  in  the  Berlin  series, 
there  seems  no  doubt  that  the  carvings  are  Dionysiac  in  character,  and  the  presumption  is 
strong  that  the  principal  figure  is  intended  for  the  god.  Dionysus  has  frequently  in  art  one 
or  more  attendants  (usually  satyrs)  much  smaller  than  himself,  as,  for  instance,  on  the 
“Icarius  reliefs”  and  the  Pergamene  altar  frieze.  The  tiny  figure  here  is  perhaps  an 
echo  of  that  motive.  Since  Dionysus  and  his  other  companions  are  bov-like,  there  is  no 
attempt  to  differentiate  this  accessory  figure  except  by  his  lesser  size  and  complete  nudity. 

These  carvings  are  not  only  without  attraction,  but  are  positively  ugly.  The  greatest 
fault  in  the  panel  reliefs  is  in  the  legs  which  are  short  in  proportion  to  the  bodies,  being 
especially  stunted  below  the  knees.  The  lions’  heads  and  the  medallions  show  the  limita- 
tions imposed  by  the  use  of  bones.  The  lions’  noses  are  unnaturally  and  disagreeably 
broad, and  the  human  heads  have  heavy  lower  faces,  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  necessity 
of  following  the  curve  of  the  bones  without  deep  cutting.  For  the  same  reason,  in  the 
medallions  the  eyes  are  not  deeply  enough  set,  and  the  noses  have  little  elevation.  The 
very  flat,  spreading  nostrils,  and  tiny  mouth  framed  by  unduly  full  cheeks,  give  a repulsive 
expression  to  the  faces. 

There  is  no  external  clue  for  dating  this  funerary  bed,  but  one  may  say  that  it  could 
hardly  be  earlier  than  200  B.  C.  or  later  than  100  A.  D.  There  is  meager  evidence  in 
regard  to  the  Ancona  and  Norcia  couches  in  a coin  found  with  each — with  the  Ancona 
couch  a coin  of  168  B.  C.,^  with  the  Norcia  couch  one  of  the  time  of  Augustus.^  Pascjui 
states  that  in  the  region  of  Norcia  in  graves  of  the  third  century,  amply  dated  by  coins, 
wooden  sarcophagi,  not  beds  of  bone  or  carvings  in  bone  of  any  sort,  were  found.  The 
style  of  the  carvings  ought  to  help  in  the  dating,  but  squat  figures  with  comparatively  large 
heads  begin  probably  in  the  third  century  B.  C.  within  the  limits  of  old  Etruria.’  If  the 
poorness  of  the  work  were  a safe  criterion,  the  reliefs  under  consideration  would  come  very 


' See  preceding  note. 

^ Graevkn,  ]).  91. 

3 Especially  in  literature,  but  occasionally  also 
in  art  after  the  mifidle  of  the  fifth  century.  See 
Roscher,  Ausfiilirlichcs  Lexikon  dcr  griechischen 
und  rdmisclicn  Mythologic,  V'ol.  I,  cols.  1043,  1044, 
and  Vassits,  Die  Fackcl  in  Kiillur  und  Kunsl  dcr 
Gricchen,  pp.  38  ff. 


C/.  the  carvings  found  at  Ancona  (Rrizio,  ]). 
455)  where  the  horses’  faces  have  the  same  unnatural 
breadth  as  that  noted  above. 

5 Brizio,  p.  458. 

* Pasqui,  col.  244. 

7 Springer,  Handhuch  dcr  Kunstgcschichlc, 
MicnAEi,is,)^Vol.  V,  p.  368. 


io8 


DISCUSSION  OF  PLATES 


late  among  the  various  extant  series  of  carvings  in  bone.  But  it  is  equally  possible  that  a 
less  skilful  workman  may  have  produced  them  in  a period  when  better  work  was  done. 
In  fact,  this  last  was  probably  the  case,  for  the  points  of  identity  between  the  carvings  in 
Berlin  and  these  are  so  many  that  the  two  sets  must  be  nearly  contemporaneous  and  be 
in  some  way  related  to  one  another.  The  reproductions  cited  on  p.  io6  in  n.  2 are  inade- 
cpiate  for  a fair  detailed  comparison,  yet  it  is  apparent  from  them  that  the  Berlin  figures 
are  better  proportioned,  and  the  entire  composition  of  the  series  which  they  form  is  less 
monotonous  than  in  the  case  of  the  carvings  published  here. 

It  can  no  longer  be  thought  that  this  class  of  work  was  ])racticed  only  in  the  Abruzzi,' 
since  beds  of  bone  have  been  found  in  both  Ancona  and  Orvieto,  but  Pasqui’s  theory  that 
the  art  was  introduced  from  Campania  is  probable  enough.  In  the  last  three  centuries 
B.  C.  central  Italy  was  probably  influenced  by  southern  Italy  rather  than  directly  by  the 
Greek  East,  and  there  is  every  probability  that  the  beds  in  metal  and  ivory  which  these 
resembled  in  design  were  produced  in  southern  Italy. 

piatf  XXVII  Plate  XXVII. — Working  drawing  for  a bed  of  Roman  type.  Based  on  the  sar- 
cophagus relief  reproduced  in  Fig.  31.  See  p.  60. 

Plate  XXVIII  Plate  XXVIII. ^ — Relief  in  lead,  in  all  probability  the  end  of  a cofhn.  In  the 
Antiquarium  of  the  Royal  Museums  at  Berlin.  Length,  26  cm.;  height, 
18  cm.  Mentioned,  pp.  34,  36,  and  59.  In  the  accession  report  (Treu, 
Arch.  Zeit.,  1881,  col.  260)  it  is  suggested  that  this  relief  maybe  Byzantine. 
If  so  late — which  I doubt — the  relief  at  least  shows  a form  inherited  from  the 
Romans.  3 


Plate  xxixa  PLATE  XXIXa.'^ — Terra-cotta  in  the  Egyptian  Department  of  the  Royal  Museums 
at  Berlin.  Length,  13.5  cm.;  height,  9.5  cm.  Verz.  der  dgypt.  Altert.%  p.  373, 
No.  13,166.  Mentioned  here,  pp.  34,  36,  38,  and  75.  Marks  of  attachment 
on  the  seat  of  the  sofa  indicate  that  there  was  probably  once  a second  small 
dog  next  the  cushion. 


Plate  xxixb  Plate  XXIXL^ — Terra-cotta  in  the  British  Museum.  Height,  9.9  cm.;  length, 
9.9  cm.  From  Italy.  B.  M.  Terracottas,  p.  365,  No.  D 359.  Described 
here,  pp.  34,  35,  and  76  (n.  i). 


' PASQtn,  col.  242,  and  Graeven,  p.  92. 

^ See  p.  93,  n.  2. 

i I shall  publish  elsewhere  a brief  article  on  lead 


coffins  and  may  be  able  to  throw  some  light  on  their 
chronology. 

See  p.  97,  n.  2. 

5 See  p.  90,  n.  i. 


SFXTION  II 


TABLE  OF  GREEK  AND  LATIN  TERMS  APPLIED  TO  BEDS,  THE  PARTS  OF  BEDS,  AND 

THEIR  FURNISHINGS" 

Bed,  Couch; 

Common  Words — 

Homeric  and  occurring  in  later  poetry:  (both  sing,  and  pL). 

Post-Homeric — 

Prose:  kXivtj. 

Prose  and  poetry;  lectus. 

Rarer  Words — 

Homeric  and  occasional  in  later  poetry:  Se'fxvia^  (pi-))  '^^Krpov^  (both  sing,  and  pL). 
Post-Homeric — 

Poetry;  kXiuttjp^  Koirp.^ 

Poetry  and  prose:  ciihile,  pulvinar. 

Diminutives,  often  colloquial,  sometimes,  but  not  always,  denoting 
smaller  beds:  kXlviSlov,  KXivT'ppiov,  KXivdpiov,  lectulus,  lecticu/aJ^ 
Poorer,  humbler  beds:  crKLp.7rov<i^  aa KdvTrj<; ^ daKavTO<;p  ^ap.evv7jp  KpdB- 
BaTo<;,  or  icpd(3aro‘i^  grabatus;  diminutives  of  preceding:  <7Kip,7rdSiov^ 
Xap^evviovp 

Couch  in  semicircular  form:  rjpuKVKXLovp  siihadium,  sigma. 

Leg:  7tov<;P  pes.’^ 

Rail;  ivpXarovp°  KXivrppiovp^  sponda.^^ 

End-rest:  iTn'KXiPTpovp^  dvdKXivTpovp^  dvdKXirovp^  avdKXLai<; julcrump^  pluteiim.^^" 
Back  ( ?) : pluteus  or  phiteiim.'^'^ 

Back  and  end-rests  (?); 

Interlacing’® — 

Strands,  without  implication  as  to  material:  roVoi,  jasciae,  instifae. 

Thongs:  lora;  of  horses’  hide,  icdXw  l'jnreloL.^° 

Strands  of  vegetable  liber;  airdprai^  aTrapTia,  tceiplai^  a-)(^olvoL  ( ?)p^  a^otpi'ai  ( 
Adjectives  Descriptive  of  Beds; 

Homeric  Terms — 

With  turned  legs;  Sipcord^^  (Xe^ea). 

(?)  Tp7]Ta^^  (\e%ea). 

Post-Homeric  Terms — 

Having  rests  at  both  ends  of  the  bed:  dp(j>iK€(f7aXo<;.^-* 

V’eneered  ( ?),  veneered  with  lioxwood  (?):  dp,(f)iKoXXo<;p^  7rapdKoXXo<;p^  irapd- 

7TU^09.^5 

( ?)  apppoTTOv^;.^'^' 

Having  sphinxes  introduced  in  the  design  of  the  legs  ( ?) : <TpiyjdTro8e‘i.^'’ 

109 


BEDS  AND 
COUCHES 


PARTS  OF 
BEDS  AND 
COUCHES 


EPITHETS 
APPLIED  TO 
BEDS  AND 
t'OUCHES 


I lO 


TABLE  OF  GREEK  AND  LATIN  TERMS 


FURNISHINGS 
OF  BEDS 
AND 

COUCHES 


Mattress  : 

Ordinary  words:  ailcita,  torus. 

Diminutive;  TvXelov. 

Occasional:  Kvec^aWov. 

Pillow  ; 

Commonly:  irpoaice^dXaLov^  pulvinus. 
Occasional:  culcita  ( ?)p®  cubital. 
Doric:  iroTiKpavov. 

Post-Augustan : cervical. 


Stuffing  for  AIattresses  and  Pillows;  irXppcopiap^  tomentum. 

Coverlets,  Draperies: 

Homeric:  pr']jeap°  )(Xaivaip°  Td7r?/Te9.3° 

Skins;  Kcoea. 

Post-Homeric — 

Various  terms:  dpipiTairoip^  SdTriSe?,^^  em^Xt^pLarap^  eiTL^oXaiap^  i<f)€aTpiBe<fp^ 
instragula,  ^n<JTtSe?,33  opercidap^  opertoriap^  operimenta,  TveptfSoXaiap’^  irepL- 
arpayp^arap^  sagap^  stragulap°  stramenta,  arpaypara^  aTpcapvai^  rdin^e'^p'’ 
virocTTpdypaTap*  ^Xalvaip^  vestes  stragulae. 

Sheejiskins  used  for  bedding:  ctpvuKiSe'ip^  KoySia. 

Coverings  with  nap  on  one  side:  rdirpre^.^^ 

Coverings  with  nap  on  both  sides:  dpcfyLrdTrpre^.^^ 

Coverings  with  smooth  surfaces:  •'f'OoSdmSe?,34  -v^tXoTdTriSe?.^! 

Rush  mat  to  throw  over  a bed:  yp'iaOo'^p^  (jyoppot'.‘^3 
( ?)  tor  alia. 


' I <rive  references  in  the  following  notes  only 
for  such  words  as  offer  special  difficulties,  and  are 
omitted  or  not  adequately  treated  in  the  dictionaries. 
However,  the  indications  here  of  the  use  of  these 
words  are  only  apj)roximate.  I have  not  been  able 
to  make  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  terminology. 

^ For  distinctions  in  the  various  Homeric  terms 
for  beds  see  Buchholz,  Vol.  II,  Part  II,  pp.  150  ff. 

3 Used  of  the  bed,  not  as  a structure,  but  with 
emphasis  on  the  idea  of  a reclining-place.  Profes- 
sor Man’s  interpretation:  “Es  gab  Betten  an  denen 
sie  [the  tvrjXaTo]  eine  gewisse  Flohe  hatten,  und  die 
Gurte  an  ihrer  Unterseite  befestigt  waren,  so  dass 
eine  Bettlade,  koUt;  (Poll.,  VI,  10),  entstand” 
(Malt,  col.  370),  seems  to  me  unfounded.  In  the 
first  place,  I do  not  know  of  any  monumental  evi- 
dence for  the  statement  that  the  interlacing  was 
sometimes  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  hrpaTa^ 
and,  secondly,  it  is  much  simider  to  understand  the 
word  in  Pollux,  VI,  10,  as  denoting  a chest  in 


which  the  bed-clothing  was  laid  away  when  not  in 
use;  the  occurrence  of  KoLr-q  in  Pollux,  VII,  160,  in 
company  with  and  Kipurd?,  would  seem 

to  confirm  the  translation  “chest”  for  these  pas- 
sages. C/.  Wilhelm,  Jahresh.,  Vol.  VI  (1903), 
p.  240. 

3"  I am  aware  that  the  number  of  occurrences  of 
some  of  these  words  is  very  small  for  basing  a clas- 
sification upon.  Nevertheless,  it  has  seemed  best 
to  include  even  very  rare  words  in  the  table  of 
terms,  placing  them  according  to  such  evidence  as 
exists. 

4 Suidas  only. 

3 The  variant  occurs  in  the  list  of 

property  of  the  Hermocopidse  (Dittenberger, 
Sylloge  Inscriptionum  Graecarump  No.  44,  1.  5; 
Wilhelm,  Jahresh.,  Vol.  VI  [1903],  p.  237). 

* In  Poll.,  X,  35,  synonym  of  (rd/xTrovs,  d<xKdi>Tr)s, 
KpdppaTov.  The  diminutive  form  need  not  be  taken 
as  necessarily  denoting  smaller  size. 


TABLE  OF  GREEK  AND  LATIN  TERMS 


III 


7 Poll.,  VI,  9. 

® Athen.,  II,  48?);  VI,  255«;  Poll.,  X,  34.  Cj. 
k\ivQiv  -rrSSes^  /.  G.,  I,  pp.  't^m  33.  Pro- 

fessor Michaelis  in  Der  Parthenon,  p.  291,  says: 
“die  12  [should  be  13]  versilberten  Fiisse  von  Ruhe- 
betten  haben  schwerlich  etwas  damit  gemein” 
(speaking  of  the  famous  chair  of  Xerxes,  which  had 
silver  legs),  and  Dr.  Vollmoller  speaks  more 
decisively  on  this  point  in  the  Athen.  Mitt.,  Vol. 
XXVI  (1901),  p.  371,  n.  2.  Most  beds  must  have 
been  made  to  take  down  and  put  up  (c/.  p.  48,  n.  2), 
and  at  this  time  the  decoration  of  couches  was 
largely  lavished  on  their  supports,  so  that  there  is 
nothing  impossible  or  very  remarkable  in  the  presence 
of  detached  legs  of  couches  among  the  treasures 
kept  in  the  Parthenon. 

9 Ter.,  Ad.,  585;  Ov.,  Met.,  VIII,  656-59. 

M.  Girard  thinks  that  this  word  was  applied 
to  the  tegs  (Girard,  p.  1015),  but  the  passages  that 
he  cites  do  not  prove  the  statement,  and  Artem.,  I, 
74,  referred  to  by  Professor  Mau  (Mau,  col.  370), 
seems  conclusive  for  the  usual  translation  given 
above. 

” In  Poll.,  VI,  g,  apparently  intended  as  a 
synonym  for  ivrfkaTov. 

“ IsiD.,  XX,  II,  5,  and  Hor.,  Epod.,  3,  22,  indi- 
cate the  use  of  the  term  for  the  front  rail  only  or  the 
front  portion  of  the  couch.  Other  passages,  such 
as  Ov.,  Met.,  VIII,  656,  and  Petron.,  97,  seem 
conclusive  for  the  meaning,  the  couch  frame,  viz., 
the  four  rails  taken  collectively. 

Poll.,  VI,  9,  shows  that  these  terms  are  syn- 
onymous, and  X,  34,  that  they  denote  parts  of  a bed; 
the  legs  and  frame  being  otherwise  jirovided  with 
names,  and  the  etymology  of  the  word  being  favor- 
able, the  translation  given  above  seems  highly 
probable. 

Corp.  Gloss.  Lat.,  II,  74,  8. 

'5  Etym.  M.,  90,  30.  Cj.  Wilhelm,  Jahresh., 
Vol.  VI  (1903),  p.  240. 

'rhe  meaning  of  this  word  was  made  clear 
by  Professor  Anderson  in  the  Classical  Reincw, 
Vol.  Ill  (1889),  pp.  322  ff.,  in  an  article  entitled 
“The  Meaning  of  Fulcrum  and  Fulcri  Genius;” 
the  word  is  discussed  by  Professor  Mau,  a])j)ar- 
ently  without  knowledge  of  the  earlier  article,  in 
the  N achrichlen  von  dcr  koniglichen  GeseUschajt 


der  Wissenschajten  zu  Gottingen,  1896,  pp.  76  ff., 
under  “Fulcra  Lectorum.  Testudines  Alveorum.” 
Corp.  Gloss.  Lat.,  II,  p.  152,  39.  Cj.  IMau, 
col.  371. 

Occurs  in  reference  to  beds  in  three  passages. 
Prop.,  IV,  8,  68;  Mart.,  Ill,  91,  10;  Suet.,  Calig., 
26;  for  all  of  which  the  translation  “back”  seems 
appropriate,  although  the  passages  are  not  abso- 
lutely conclusive  for  this  interpretation. 

Artem.,  I,  74.  The  word  admirably  describes 
the  end-boards  and  back  of  late  Roman  couches. 
Cj.  Figs.  18  and  40.  Artemidorus  lived  at  a time 
when  such  couches  were  in  vogue. 

See  pp.  62  ff. 

An  item  in  the  newly  published  fragment  of 
the  lists  of  the  property  of  the  Hermocopida;  is 
Kd]Xo  Hnnrdo  Svo  (WiLHELM,  JaliresJl.,  Vol.  VI[l903], 

p-  239)- 

Poll.,  X,  36,  mentions  the  terms  as  doubtful, 
and  Suidas  does  not  give  this  meaning  under  the 
words  themselves,  although  he  employs  them  in  his 
explanation  of  Keipta,  etc. 

See  p.  39. 

Heuzey  (Mission  archeologique  en  Macedoine, 
p.  256)  and  M.  Girard  (Girard,  p.  1014)  think 
that  the  term  refers  to  rectangular  legs  with  incisions. 
It  seems  to  me  extremely  improbable  that  this  well- 
known  type  of  historic  times  is  older  than  the  sev- 
enth century  (see  p.  73,  n.  3).  The  term  has  also 
been  interpreted  as  referring  to  holes  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  interlacing.  See  further  Buchholz, 
Vol.  II,  Part  II,  p.  152. 

The  form  aix<pLKvi(paKko%  of  Poll.,  X,  36,  is 
probably  an  error.  See  the  latest  discussion  of  the 
two  forms  by  Dr.  A.  Wilhelm  in  the  Jahresh.,  \'ol. 
VI  (1903),  p.  237.  For  monumental  illustration  see 
Figs.  II  and  12  and  Plate  I. 

^5  See  p.  41,  n.  i. 

Occurs  in  laws  in  regard  to  funerals  of  the 
city  of  lulis  on  the  island  of  Ceos  (Roehl,  Inscrip- 
tiones  Graccae  Antiquissimae,  395'.!).  Dr.  X’oi.l- 
MOLLER  (Athen.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XX\’I  [1901),  p.  348, 
n.  3)  reports  the  application  by  Professor  Wolters 
of  the  term  to  beds  of  the  type  rc])resented  by 
the  couch  at  Vhithia  (I'dg.  38).  Hut  to  my  mind 
the  meaning  of  <r(/)^v67roi's  is  loo  general  to  be 
assigned  with  assurance  to  any  one  tyjie  of  couch 


II2 


TABLE  OF  GREEK  AND  LATIN  TERMS 


known  to  us.  The  turned  legs  of  the  Vathia  couch 
and  its  analogues  are  no  more  “wedge-shaped” 
than  many  other  styles  of  couch  legs.  And  it  seems 
further  as  if  the  Greeks  would  have  applied  the 
same  word  to  the  turned  legs  of  couches  that  they 
did  to  those  of  chairs,  /.  c.,  <TTpoyyv\6wo5(s,  (/.  G., 
II,  646,  1.  13;  673,  11.  4 and  9;  675,  11.  12,  T3;  and 
MiCH.'tELis,  Der  Parthenon,  p.  297,  Nos.  14  and  30 
p and  q).  Since  there  is  no  other  occurrence  of  the 
term  ap-nrtnrom  in  ancient  sources,  it  may  have 
described  a local  style  of  couch  not  illustrated  in  the 
monuments. 

Athen.,  V,  197(2.  The  term,  indeed,  suggests 
couches  with  sphin.xes  instead  of  legs  as  supports, 
after  the  manner  of  some  chairs  {cj.  p.  95).  Dr. 
David  Robinson,  formerly  fellow  of  the  American 
School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens,  kindly  allows 
me  to  mention  a fragment  of  a small  terra-cotta 
plaque  found  at  Corinth,  which  he  has  identified 
as  the  end  of  a couch.  In  this  the  support  is  a 
crouching  figure,  probably  a sphinx.  This  is 
described  by  Dr.  Robinson  in  an  article  entitled 
“Terra-Cottas  from  Corinth”  soon  to  appear  in 
the  Am.  Jonrn.  Arch.  This  one  small  terra-cotta, 
however,  and  the  analogy  of  the  marble  couch  with 
supports  in  the  form  of  griffins,  do  not  convince  me 
that  real  beds  ever  had  such  unwieldy  substitutes 
for  legs  as  sphinxes  or  griffins.  I am  inclined 
to  think  that  the  ffpiyyd-rrod^s  Mrai  were  certain 
couches,  known  through  monumental  evidence, 
which  had  crouching  sphinxes  introduced  between 
the  turned  members  in  the  design  of  the  legs  (see 
Figs.  14,  30,  and  50,  and  pp.  29,  30).  This  style  of 


couch  was  at  the  height  of  its  popularity  at  the  time 
of  the  celebrated  feast  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
referred  to  by  Athenaeus. 

The  etymology  is  favorable  to  either  mattress 
or  pillowy  and  most  passages  are  indecisive;  in  a 
few  the  context  makes  it  probable  that  a mattress 
is  intended;  I do  not  know  any  such  for  the  meaning 
“pillow.” 

Poll.,  X,  41. 

For  distinctions  in  these  Homeric  terms  see 
Bltchholz,  Vol.  II,  Part  II,  p.  157. 

3'  Athen.,  VI,  255c. 

3^  Poll.,  X,  38. 

33  Ibid.,  VI,  10;  X,  42. 

3“i  Ibid.,  VI,  10. 

35  Varr.,  L.  L.,  V,  167. 

3^  In  Sen.,  Ep.,  87,  2,  coverlets  to  be  drawn  up 
over  the  reclining  person. 

37  Poll.,  X,  42. 

3*  Ibid.,  VI,  10,  and  Athen.,  II,  48c. 

39  Mart.,  XIV,  159. 

■1°  In  Sen.,  Ep.,  87,  2,  coverlets  thrown  over  the 
bed. 

Aristoph.,  Nnb.,  730. 

^MMll.,  X,  43;  Aristoph.,  Lysistr.,  916  ff.; 
Theophr.,  H.  P.,  IV,  8,  4. 

“I3  Given  by  Poll.  (X,  43)  directly  following 

ptados. 

‘i+From  FIor.,  Sat.,  II,  4,  84,  it  appears  that 
toralia  were  washable.  See  note  in  Kiessling’s 
Horace  on  this  passage. 


SECTION  III 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Blumner,  Hugo; 


Girard,  P.: 

Mau,  August: 
Petersen,  Eugen; 


A.  ARTICLES  OF  A GENERAL  CHARACTER 

(1)  Baumcister,  Vol.  I,  pp.  312-14,  article  Bettcn. 

(2)  Das  Kiinst gewerbe  im  Alterhim.  (Only  in  small  part  con- 
cerned with  couches.) 

(3)  Kunst  und  Gewerbe,  1885,  Parts  10-12,  “Der  altgriechische 
Mobelstil.”  (Deals  also  with  chairs  and  stools.) 

(4)  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  grecques 
et  romahies,  pp.  1014-23,  article  Lectus. 

(5)  Paiily-Wissowa,  Real-Encyclopadie  der  classiscJien  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft,  Vol.  Ill,  cols.  370-73,  article  Bettcn. 

(6)  Rom.  Miit.,  Vol.  VII  (1892),  pp.  32-80,  in  an  article 
entitled  “Aphrodite.” 

Some  general  matter  also  in  the  articles  and  books  cited  under 

B,  8 and  10,  and  F,  31  and  32. 


B.  IN  REGARD  TO  FUNERARY  COUCHES 


Altmann,  Walter: 
Heuzey,  Leon: 


Kuruniotis,  K.: 
Vollm5ller,  K.  G.: 


(7)  ArcJiitectiir  und  Ornamentik  der  antiken  Sarkopliage, 
Part  I,  4,  “Die  icXivai.” 

(8)  (a)  Mission  archeologique  en  Macedoine,  pp.  250-66, 

“Les  sepultures  macedonicnncs  et  Ics  lits  funebres.” 
[b]  Gazette  des  beaux  arts,  Vol.  VII  (1873),  pp.  305-12 
and  501-14,  “Les  lits  antic|ues,  consideres  particu- 
lieremcnt  commc  forme  de  la  sepulture”  = i?cc//tTc//<?5 
sur  les  lits  antiques,  (pamphlet).  (Substantially  the 
same  article  as  {a),  from  which  it  varies  only  in  the 
introductory  ]iaragraphs  and  in  the  illustrations.) 

(9)  ’Ep7] ’ RpxaioXoyiKiq,  1899,  cols.  221-34. 

(10)  Atlien.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XXVI  (1901),  pp.  333-76,  “Ubcr  zwei 
euboische  Kammcrgraber  mit  Totenbettcn.” 

(11)  Griechisclie  Kanunergrdber  mit  Totenbettcn.  (Doctor’s 
Dissertation,  Bonn.) 


C.  COUCHES  OR  PARTS  OF  COUCHES  WITH  BRONZE  ATTACHMENTS 

Amelung,  Walther:  (12)  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  ])]).  269-76,  “Das  capi- 

tolinischc  Bisellium.” 


“3 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


I14 


Anonymous:  (13)  'Ecfyyfxeph  ap)(^aio\ojiK')'],  1902,  col.  168,  Figs.  11-13,  in 

article  entitled  “Ta  JLvprjp^aTa  tov  ^avajiov  tmv  'Apti- 
Kv6l]pU)V. 

B.\belon,  Ernest,  and 

BL.A.NCHET,  J.  Adrien:  (14)  Cat.  des  bronzes  ant.  de  la  Bibl.  nat.,  p.  478,  No.  1156,  and 

p.  632,  No.  1830. 

CASTELL.'t.Ni,  Augusto:  (15)  BuUettino  della  conimissione  arcJieologica  communale  di 

Roma,  Vol.  II  (1874),  pp.  22-32,  “II  bisellio  capitolino.” 

Cumont:  (16)  Collection  Raoul  Warocqiie.  Antiquites  egyptiennes,  grecques 

et  romaines,  p.  33,  No.  52. 


Frohner,  W.: 


(17)  Collection  Auguste  Dutnit,  pp.  31-33. 


Pernice,  Erich: 


(18)  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XV  (1900),  Anz.,  pp.  178  ft'. 

(19)  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XIX  (1904),  Anz.,  p.  30,  No.  36. 


Schumacher,  Karl:  (20) 

SvoRONOS,  J.  N.,  and 

Barth,  W.  (translator):  (21) 


Beschreibung  der  Sammlung  antiker  Bronzen  zu  Karlsruhe, 
pp.  56,  57,  Nos.  324,  325. 

Das  Athener  National-Museum,  Parts  I and  II,  “Die 
Fnnde  von  Antikythera,”  pp.  51  ff.,  Plate  IX. 


Walters,  H.  B.:  (22)  B.  M.  Bronzes,  pp.  330,  331. 

WiEGAND,  Th.,  and 

Schrader,  H.  : (23)  Priene.  Ergebnisse  der  Ausgrabiingen  1895-98. 

See  also  article  cited  under  F,  30. 


D.  BEDS  OF  BONE  OR  CARVINGS  FROM  SUCH  BEDS 


Brizio,  Edoardo: 
Brunn,  Heinrich: 

Gerhard,  Eduard: 
Graeven,  Hans: 

Pasqui,  a.: 


(24)  Notizie  degli  scavi,  1902,  p.  445,  “Tombe  dell’  epoca 
romana  (ad  umazione).” 

(25)  Ann.  d.  I.,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1862),  pp.  284-87  and  Plate  P, 
“Lavori  intagliati  in  osso”  ■=  Brunn  and  Bulle,  Hein- 
rich Brunn' s kleine  Schrijten,  Vol.  I,  pp.  122  ff. 

(26)  Etruskische  Spiegel,  Vol.  I,  Plate  XIV. 

(27)  Antike  Schnitzereien  aus  Eljenbein  und  Knochen,  pp.  26, 
27>  48-53»  56,  58,  59>  82-92,  97-99,  and  100. 

(28)  Monumenti  antichi  pubblicati  per  cura  dell'  Accademia  dei 
Lincei,  Vol.  I (1889),  cols.  233  ff.,  “Di  un  antico  letto  di 
osso  scoperto  in  una  tomba  di  Norcia.” 


e.  parts  of  wooden  couches  ( ?) 

Ransom,  C.  L.:  (29)  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XVII  (1902),  pp.  125-40,  “Reste  griechischer 

Holzmbbel  in  Berlin.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Anderson,  W.  C.  F.  : 

Blumner,  Hugo: 

Marquardt,  Joachim, 
and  Mau,  August  : 

Mau,  August: 


115 


F.  TERMINOLOGY 

(30)  Classical  Review,  Vol.  Ill  (1889),  pp.  322-24,  “The 
Meaning  of  Fulcrum  and  Fulcri  Genius.” 

(31)  Technologie  und  Terminologie. 

(32)  Das  Privat-Lehen  der  Romer,^  Vol.  VII  of  Handbuch  der 
romischen  Altertliiimer,  by  J.  Marcpiardt  and  T.  Mommsen. 

(33)  N achrichten  von  der  konigliclien  Gesellschajt  der  Wissen- 
schajten  zti  Gottingen,  1896,  pp.  76-82,  “Fulcra  Lectorum. 
Testudines  Alveorum.” 

Consult  also  articles  cited  under  A,  4 and  5. 


SUBJECTS  AND  SOURCES'  OF  THE  TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig.  I,  p.  20. — Body  lying  in  state;  seated  and  standing  mourners.  Part  of  a Dipylon 
vase-painting.  From  Uu5e’5  ant.  dii  Louvre,  Plate  XX,  A 541. 

Fig.  2,  p.  21. — Heracles  reclining  upon  a dining-couch  in  the  house  of  Eurytus.  Detail 
from  a Corinthian  vase-painting.  Louvre.  After  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr.,  Plate 
6=  De  Longjierier,  Miisee  Napoleon  HI,  Plate  XXXIV. 

Fig.  3,  }).  21. — Man  reclining  on  a bancjuct-couch.  Part  of  a Corinthian  vase-painting. 
From  the  Jalirb.,  Vol.  V (1890),  p.  242. 

Fig.  4,  p.  22. — The  body  of  Achilles  lying  in  state.  Part  of  a Corinthian  vase-painting. 

Louvre.  From  Heuzey,  Recherches  sur  les  I its  antiques,  p.  8. 

Fig.  5,  p.  22. — Phineus  reclining  on  a dining-couch.  Detail  from  a Chalcidian  vase- 
painting.  Wurzburg.  Drawing  after  Furtwangler-Reichhold,  Plate  41. 

Fig.  6,  p.  23. — Woman  spinning,  seated  upon  a couch.  Fragment  of  a terra-cotta  placpie. 

Acropolis  Museum,  Athens.  Drawing  after  .J . H.  S.,  Vol.  XVII  (1897),  P-  3°9>  Fig-  i- 
Fig.  7,  p.  24. — Etruscan  couch.  Detail  from  the  relief  decoration  of  a limestone  cinerary 
urn.  British  Museum.  Sketched  from  original. 

Fig.  8,  p.  25. — Banqueting-scene.  Detail  from  a wall-painting  in  an  Etruscan  tomb. 

Corneto-Tarquinia.  From  Bulle,  Der  schone  Mensch;  Alterthum,  Plate  66. 

Fig.  9,  p.  26. — Banc[ueting-scene.  Detail  from  a red-hgured  vase-painting.  Corneto- 

Tarquinia.  From  GjolbascJii-Trysa,  p.  176,  Fig.  150. 

Fig.  10,  p.  27. — Part  of  a dining-couch.  Fragment  of  a red-hgured  vase.  From  Jahrb., 
Vol.  XIV  (1899),  p.  105. 

Fig.  II,  p.  27. — Theseus  slaying  Procrustes.  Detail  from  a red-figured  vase  signed  by 
Aison.  Madrid.  From  the  Ant.  Dcnkin.,  II,  Plate  I. 

Fig.  12,  p.  29. — Alarble  funerary  couch,  found  in  a tomb  near  Pydna  in  Macedonia. 

Louvre.  From  a photograph,  Giraudon,  No.  1439. 

Fig.  13,  p.  30. — Person  reclining  on  a couch.  Fragment  of  Egyptian  faience.  Berlin. 
Drawing  from  original.  See  p.  97,  n.  2. 

Fig.  14,  p.  31. — Man  reclining  on  a couch  and  holding  a drinking-bowl.  Two  attendants 
below.  Terra-cotta  cinerary  urn.  Museo  Kircheriano,  Rome.  From  a photograph. 
Fig.  15,  p.  34.  Specimens  of  turned  legs  from  Roman  couches.  Sketch  based  on  the 
following  sources  (counting  from  the  left):  (i)  photograph  of  a late  Roman  sarcoph- 
agus in  the  Museo  Kircheriano,  Rome,  Tuminello,  No.  397;  (2)  photograph  of  a 

' In  the  following  list  the  name  of  the  house  could  be  otherwise  sure  in  the  matter.  In  a few 

issuing  a given  photograph  is  stated  in  every  case  instances,  however,  I have  to  my  regret  been  unable 

where  that  name  appears  on  the  photograph  or  I to  identify  the  photographs  used. 


FIGURES  16-27 


117 

late  Roman  sarcophagus  found  in  Servia  (see  p.  36,  n.  i);  (3)  photograph  of  a tomb- 
relief  in  the  Lateran  Museum  = Helbig,  Fiikrer,^  Vol.  I,  p.  462,  No.  691;  (4)  photo- 
graph of  a Roman  gravestone  on  the  island  of  Paros,  No.  92,  Paros  series  taken  for 
the  German  Archceological  Institute;  (5)  photograph  of  Alcestis  sarcophagus  in  the 
Vatican  = Helbig,  ibid.,  p.  43,  No.  76;  (6)  photograph  of  a relief  in  the  Lateran 
Museum;  (7)  picture  of  a Roman  gravestone.  Fig.  108,  p.  118,  in  Haverfield,  Cu/a- 
logue  of  the  Roman  Inscribed  and  Sculptured  Stones  in  the  Grosvenor  Museum,  Chester. 

Fig.  16,  p.  34. — Patterns  from  the  rails  of  late  Roman  couches.  Sketch  based  on  the 
following  sources  (counting  from  the  top);  (i)  Clarac,  Musee  de  sculpture  antique  et 
moderne,  Vol.  II,  Plate  153  (333),  sarcophagus  of  a young  girl;  (2)  see  Fig.  17;  (3)  the 
work  cited  under  Fig.  15,  3;  (4)  sketch  of  end-piece  of  a sofa  in  marble  = Amelung, 
Fiihrer,  p.  192,  No.  215. 

Fig.  17,  p.  35. — Cover  in  couch  form  of  a Roman  sarcophagus.  Museo  Torlonia,  Rome. 
From  Robert,  Antike  Sarkophag-Reliefs,  Vol.  Ill,  Plate  XXXIV. 

Fig.  18,  p.  36. — Relief  on  a Roman  gravestone.  Island  of  Paros.  Drawing  from  a 
photograph  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute,  No.  85,  Paros  series. 

Fig.  19,  p.  36. — Detail  from  a sofa  of  Roman  date.  From  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  VII  (1892), 
P-  45.  Fig-  VIII,  3. 

Fig.  20,  p.  37. — Detail  from  a sofa  of  Roman  date.  From  the  Rom.  Mitt.,  Vol.  VII 
(1892),  p.  45,  Fig.  VIII,  6. 

Fig.  21,  p.  37. — Relief  on  a Roman  cippus.  From  Clarac,  Musee  de  sculpture  antique  et 
moderne,  Vol.  II,  Plate  135  (339). 

Fig.  22,  p.  40. — Detail  from  a banciuet-scene  on  a red-figured  vase.  British  Museum, 
No.  E 47.  From  Hartwig,  Meisterschalen,  Plate  XXXIV. 

Fig.  23,  p.  42. — Detail  from  the  scene  “Theseus  slaying  Procrustes.”  Red-figured  vase. 
After  Noel  des  Vergers,  UEtrurie  et  les  Etrusques,  Vol.  Ill,  Plate  XIV. 

Fig.  24,  p.  42. — Detail  from  the  scene  “Theseus  slaying  Procrustes.”  Red-figured  vase- 
painting  from  the  workshop  of  Chachrylion.  Archaeological  Museum,  Florence.  After 
Harrison  and  McColl,  Greek  Vase  Paintings,  Plate  X=d/»5co  Italiano  di  antichita 
classica,  Vol.  HI,  Plate  II. 

Fig.  25,  p.  43. — Couch  from  a banquet-scene  on  a red-figured  vase.  Sketched  from  origi- 
nal in  the  British  Museum,  No.  E 493. 

Fig.  26,  p.  43. — The  slaying,  upon  the  return  of  Odysseus,  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope. 
Detail  from  a red-figured  vase-painting.  Berlin.  From  Bulle,  Dcr  schbne  Mcnsch: 
Alterthum,  Plate  132. 

Fig.  27,  p.  45. — Heracles  reclining  upon  a dining-couch,  attended  Iw  Hermes,  Athena, 
and  a serving-lad.  Black-figured  vase-painting  in  the  style  of  Andocides.  Munich. 
From  Furtwangler-Reichhold,  Plate  4. 


SUBJECTS  AND  SOURCES  OF  THE  TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS 


1 18 

Fig.  28,  p.  48. — Banquet-scene  on  a vase  signed  by  Duris.  British  Museum.  From 
Kullurhistorischer  Bilderatlas,  I,  Schreiber,  Altertum,  Plate  LXXVII,  g = Wien.  Vor- 
legehl.,  Series  VJ,  10. 

Fig.  29,  p.  49. — The  body  of  Archemorus  lying  in  state.  Detail  from  a red-figured  vase- 
painting.  Naples.  From  Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  120. 

Fig.  30,  p.  52. — Small  terra-cotta  in  the  National  Museum,  Athens.  Found  in  Asia 
Minor.  From  a photograph. 

Fig.  31,  p.  59. — Roman  sarcophagus  from  Syria.  Constantinople.  From  a photograph, 
No.  76  of  series  on  sale  in  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Museum. 

Fig.  32,  p.  65. — Section  of  wooden  rail  of  an  Egyptian  couch.  Berlin.  Scale-drawing 
from  the  original.  See  p.  97,  n.  2. 

Fig.  33,  p.  65. — Sketch  of  wooden  rail  of  an  Egyptian  couch,  inner  side,  showing  method 
of  attaching  the  interlacing.  Berlin.  Erom  original.  See  p.  97,  n.  2. 

Eig.  34,  p.  65. — Sectional  view  (proposed  restoration)  of  rail  of  couch  represented  in  the 
marble  fragments  from  Pergamon. 

Fig.  35,  p.  67. — Achilles  attended  in  illness  by  Thetis.  Detail  from  a Corinthian  vase- 
painting.  Louvre.  Erom  Jahrb.,  Vol.  VII  (1892),  Plate  I. 

Eig.  36,  p.  68. — Various  styles  of  Greek  pillows  and  bolsters.  From  vase-paintings. 
Beginning  in  upper  left-hand  corner,  these  details  of  pillows  are  derived  from  the  fol- 
lowing sources:  (i)  Jahrb.,  Vol.  VI  (1891),  Plate  V;  (2)  sketch  from  original.  No.  E 
433  in  the  British  Museum;  (3)  Hartwig,  Meisterschalen,  p.  332,  Eig.  44a;  (4)  Baumeis- 
ter, Vol.  II,  Eig.  857;  (5)  Eurtwangler-Reichhold,  Plate  32;  (6)  Wien.  VorlegebL,  Series 
E,  Plates  VII,  VIII;  (7)  Hartwig,  ibid.,  Plate  XXXV,  i. 

Eig.  37,  p.  69. — Eros  ministering  to  the  dying  Adonis.  Part  of  a red-figured  vase-painting. 
Naples.  Prom  Baumeister,  Vol.  I,  Fig.  18. 

Fig.  38,  p.  70. — Funerary  couch  of  marble  in  a tomb  at  Vathia  on  the  island  of  Euboea. 
Sketch  based  on  the  colored  reproduction  in  Athen.  Mitt.,  Vol.  XXVI  (1901),  Plate 
XVI. 

Eig.  39,  p.  74. — Parts  of  an  Assyrian  scat  and  footstool.  British  Museum.  From  a pho- 
tograph, Mansell,  No.  583. 

Fig.  40,  p.  76. — Relief  from  a Roman  gravestone.  Island  of  Paros.  From  a photograph 
of  the  German  Archicological  Institute,  No.  94  of  the  Paros  series. 

Fig.  41,  p.  78. — View  of  one  end  of  an  Etruscan  terra  cotta  sarcophagus.  British  Museum. 
Erom  a photograph,  London  Stereoscopic  Co.,  No.  161  of  British  Museum  series. 

Eig.  42,  p.  78. — Figure  of  Hera  enthroned.  Detail  from  a red-figured  vase-painting.  Karls- 
ruhe. From  Wien.  VorlegebL  Scries  E,  Plate  III,  i = Mon.  d.  /.,  Vol.  I,  Plate 
XLIX. 

Eig.  43,  p.  79. — Etruscan  terra-cotta  sarcophagus.  Museo  di  Papa  Giulio,  Rome.  Erom 
a photograph,  Moscioni,  No.  9331. 


FIGURE  44— HEADPIECE,  CHAPTER  IV 


IIQ 


Fig.  44,  p.  82. — Dionysus  and  x\riadne  riding  a mule,  attended  by  a satyr.  St.  Peters- 
burg. Red-figured  vase-painting.  From  Compte-rendii,  1863,  Plate  V. 

F1G.45,  p.  86. — Terra-cotta  handle(  ?).  Kestner  Museum,  Hanover.  From  a photo- 
graph. See  p.  104,  n.  i. 

Fig.  46,  p.  88.' — Ornamental  patterns  from  the  rails  of  couches.  Sketch  based  on  the  fol- 
lowing: (i)  Castellani’s  restoration  of  the  “Capitoline  bisellium,”  Tuminello,  pho- 
tograph No.  1273;  (2)  a photograph  of  the  British  Museum  “bisellium,”  (c/.  Plate 
IX);  (3)  couch  in  the  Naples  Museum,  Sommer,  photograph  No.  11,120;  (4)  “ bisel- 
lium” in  the  Naples  Museum,  Sommer,  photograph  No.  ii,iii;  (5)  “bisellium”  in  the 
Museo  Kircheriano,  Rome,  sketch  from  original;  (6)  fragment  from  a couch  rail  in 
Karlsruhe  (Schumacher,  p.  56,  No.  325). 

Fig.  47,  p.  91. — Various  types  of  chair  and  couch  supports.  From  photographs,  (a)  Detail 
of  a marble  seat  in  the  Glyptothek,  Munich,  Bbttger,  photograph  No.  2^46  = Beschr. 
der  Glypt.,  p.  335,  No.  346.  (b)  Detail  from  a seated  figure  pictured  in  the  Escorial 

Codex,  Arndt-Amelung,  Einzelne- Aujnahmen,  No.  1497.  (c)  Detail  of  a marble  seat 

in  the  Glyptothek,  Munich;  Bottger,  photograph  No.  327  =Beschr.  der  Glypt.,  p. 
327,  No.  327.  {d)  Detail  of  terra-cotta  in  the  Louvre,  from  a photograph;  cj.  frontis- 

piece of  this  book. 

Fig 48,  p.  95. — Marble  table  in  the  atrium  of  the  “House  of  Meleager,”  Pompeii.  From 
a photograph,  Sommer,  No.  1257. 

Fig.  49,  p.  98. — Satyrs’  heads  on  the  “bisellium”  in  the  British  Museum.  From  a pho- 
tograph. See  p.  90,  n.  i.  Cf.  Plate  IX. 

Fig.  50,  p.  104. — View  of  the  head  of  a couch  with  occupant  and  attendants.  Terra- 
cotta cinerary  urn.  Palermo.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  German  /Archaeo- 
logical Institute,  No.  301,  Roman  series. 

Fig.  51,  p.  105. — Bronze  shoe  from  a stool.  Kestner  Museum,  Hanover.  From  a }>ho- 
tograph.  See  p.  104,  n.  i. 

Fig.  52,  p.  106. — Darius  enthroned.  Detail  from  a vase-painting.  Naples.  From  a pho- 
tograph =Mo«.  d.  I.,  Vol.  IX,  Plate  L. 

Fig.  53,  p.  106. — Diagram  showing  probable  arrangement  of  carved  ornaments  on  the  legs 
of  the  Orvieto  couch. 

Headpiece,  Chap.  I. — Detail  from  the  scene  “The  Dioscuri  coming  to  the  feast  of  the 
Theoxenia.”  On  a black-figured  vase  with  white  ground.  British  Museum,  No.  B 
633.  After  Frohner,  Deux  peintures  de  vases  grecs  de  la  necropole  de  Kamciros. 

Headpiece,  Chap.  HI. — The  dead  upon  a bier.  Two  mourners.  From  a Dipylon  vase- 
painting.  From  KuUurhislorischer  Bilderatlas,  I,  Schreiber,  Altertum,  Idate  XCV,  2. 

Headpiece,  Chap.  IV. — Banquet-scene.  A Boeotian  vase-painting.  Athens.  From  Rayet 
and  Collignon,  Cer.  gr.,  p.  291,  Fig.  iii. 


120 


SUBJECTS  AND  SOURCES  OE  THE  TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS 


Tailpiece,  Chap.  I. — Detail  from  a relief  on  the  back  of  an  Etruscan  terra-cotta  sarcoph- 
agus. British  Museum.  Sketched  from  original.  C/.  Murray,  Sarcophagi, 

Greek  and  Etruscan,  in  the  British  Museum,  Plate  X. 

Tailpiece,  Chap.  II. — Bronze  ornament,  once  applied  to  some  wooden  object.  Berlin. 
Published  Jahrh.,Vo\.  XIX  (1904),  p.  30,  Fig.  35.  From  a photograph.  See  p.  93, 

n.  2. 

'Bailpiece,  Chap.  IV. — Tiny  bronze  chair  (about  9 cm.  in  height).  In  the  Wallraf- 
Richartz  Museum,  Cologne.  Found  in  Cologne.  Sketch  from  original. 

Tailpiece,  Chap.  V. — Detail  from  the  decoration  of  aMclianvase.  Athens.  After  Riegl, 
StHjragoi.  Grundlegungcn  zn  einer  Geschichte  der  Ornament ik,  p.  155,  Fig.  66. 


GENERAI.  INDEX' 


Acropolis,  at  Athens,  capital  found  on,  8o. 
Agrigentines,  ivory  beds  of,  53. 

A jour  work,  see  under  Technic. 

Alcibiades,  furniture  included  in  property  of,  54. 

See  also  Hermocopidae. 

Aldobrandini  Wedding,  33,  n.  i;  81. 

Amorgus,  cloth  of,  71. 
d^t0iK^0aXos,  28,  91,  109. 
d^t^AoXXos,  41,  n.  i;  109. 

Amphio,  Lucius  Hostilius,  61,  n.  4. 

Ancona,  beds  of  bone  found  at,  32;  50,  n.  i;  57; 
58;  104;  107;  108. 

Animal  supports,  95.  See  also  under  Griffins. 
Appliques,  see  under  Technic. 

Ara  Pacis,  32,  n.  i;  54,  n.  5. 

Archias,  61. 

Armchairs,  Mycenaean  models  of,  19. 

Artemis,  99. 

Asses,  83. 

Assyrian  furniture,  41,  n.  3;  50,  n.  2;  51;  Fig.  39; 
73.  Purple,  71. 

Astragal,  figured  on  a valance,  97. 

Attalic  mattresses,  71. 

Babylonica,  71. 

B.ack,  34,  60,  76,  109. 

Beitenus,  61. 

Bes,  97. 

Birds,  aquatic,  heads  of,  58,  83,  85,  86.  See  also 
Ducks  and  Mergansers. 

Bisellia,  so-called,  32;  83,  n.  3;  84;  85;  87;  98; 

iig.  See  also  “Capitoline  bisellium.” 

Bone,  carvings  of,  58,  107.  Couches  of,  56  ff.;  see 
also  under  Ancona  and  Norcia.  Substitute  for 
ivory,  55,  60. 

Border  designs,  78. 

Boscoreale,  bed  from,  32;  88,  n.  i;  98,  n.  4.  Sil- 
ver vessels  from,  87,  n.  3. 

Boy,  bust  of,  100. 

Braces,  floor-level,  43;  49;  90;  98,  n.  4;  cf.  Figs. 
2,  22,  25,  27,  and  Plate  II.  Restored  between 
legs,  5°,  57,  98- 


Branches,  arranged  in  twos,  87,  n.  3. 

Br.anchidae,  seated  figures  from,  47,  n.  2;  73,  n.  3; 
76,  n.  2. 

Capitals,  architectural,  akin  to  types  on  furniture, 
80.  Caryatid,  87,  n.  i.  Furniture  types,  80. 
Ionic,  80.  Phoenician  type,  80,  81. 

Capitoline  bisellium,  32,  n.  6;  51,  n.  i;  87;  119. 
Cartihida,  94;  Fig.  48. 

Carvilius  Pollio,  61. 

Carving,  see  under  Technic. 

Caryatids,  87,  n.  i. 

Chalcidian  beds,  22;  Fig.  5. 

Chian  beds,  54. 

Cinerary  urns,  Etruscan,  30,  Fig.  14;  90,  Plate  I. 

Details  from,  24,  Fig.  7;  104,  Fig.  50. 
Clazomen^,  sarcophagi  from,  77. 

Coll.ar,  worn  by  mules,  84,  85,  100. 

Corinthian  beds,  20;  21;  66;  67;  73,  n.  3;  Figs. 

2,  3,  4,  and  35. 

Cotton,  70,  71. 

Dedicated  couches,  16,  n.  4. 

Delian  beds,  60. 

Demosthenes,  workshop  belonging  to  the  father 
of,  39;  40;  41,  n.  2;  44,  n.  3;  53. 

Dionysus,  reference  to,  in  ornament  of  banquet- 
couches,  86,  87.  Perhaps  represented,  107. 
Riding  a mule,  86,  Fig.  44. 

Dog,  head  of,  87.  Ikying  on  a sofa,  Plate  XXIXa. 
Dolphins,  as  uprights  of  end-rests,  34,  36,  60, 
Plate  XXVIII.  Between  round  and  seat  of  a 
stool,  34,  n.  i.  E.xtant  specimens  of  metal,  34, 
n.  I.  Modern  usage,  a revival  of  the  Roman 
motive,  38.  Ornament  on  rail,  frontispiece,  92. 
Drapery,  66  ff.  Enveloping  couches  entirely,  26, 
29,  Fig.  37.  Fringed,  67,  97.  Lycosura,  sculp- 
tured, from,  97. 

Ducks,  heads  of,  83,  n.  3;  85;  100.  See  also  Birds. 
Egyi’tian  couches,  97,  n.  4. 

I'Igypt,  objects  from;  ivory  couch  legs  ( ?),  33,  n.  2. 
Wooden  sarcophagi  from  .\busir,  47,  n.  i;  49. 
'I’oy  bedstead  of  ])alm  sticks,  38,  n.  2. 


' Greek  and  I.alin  word,s  occurring  only  in  the  Table  of  Terms,  pp.  109  ff.,  are  not  repeated  here. 


122 


GENERAL  INDEX 


End-rests,  36,  75,  log.  Construction  of,  33,  50. 
Number  of,  33.  Position  of,  33,  34. 

Kros,  heads  of,  87,  100. 

Feathers,  used  in  stuffing  pillows,  70. 

Footboard,  97,  n.  4.  See  under  End-rests. 

Forge  work,  51. 

Fringe  on  draperies,  67,  97. 

Fiilcra,  see  End-rests. 

Funerary  couches,  16,  102  ff. 

Gjoi.b.ascih,  reliefs  from,  27,  69. 

Cnaphaliiim,  70. 

(iORDiON,  fragment  of  a bed  from,  14,  n.  i.  Star- 
like  rosettes,  carved  in  ivory,  from,  46,  n.  3;  73, 
end  of  n.  3. 

Or'Vpe  vine,  in  ornament  of  a couch  rail,  88,  loi. 

Griffins,  couch  supports,  32,  94,  95.  On  a val- 
ance, 96. 

Haterii,  tomb  of,  86,  n.  5. 

Head-rest,  construction  of  one,  48.  Egyptian, 
97,  n.  4.  End-view  of,  Eigs.  9,  28;  cf.  33,  ns.  3 
and  4.  See  also  End-rests. 

Hermocopid^e,  63;  III,  n.  20.  See  also  under 
Alcibiades. 

Hollow  casting,  see  under  Technic. 

Homeric  beds,  19,  39. 

Horn  of  plenty,  107,  Plates  XXIV,  XXV,  Eig.  48. 

Horses,  heads  of  (on  beds),  34,  Eig.  17;  82;  84; 
107,  n.  4.  (Handles),  86,  Eig.  45. 

Hostilius  Amphio,  Lucius,  61,  n.  4. 

ICARIUS  RELIEFS,  31,  107. 

Inlaying,  see  under  Technic. 

Interlacing,  62  ff.,  92. 

Ionic  capitals,  80;  81,  n.  i. 

Ivory,  see  under  Materials.  Reliefs  from  Nineveh,  80. 

Ivy,  associated  with  Dionysus,  86.  On  collars  of 
mules,  85.  On  heads  of  mules,  84,  85,  86.  On 
maenad’s  head,  loi.  On  heads  of  satyrs,  99.  On 
a rail,  loi. 

KciXu  'iTTiretu  5fo,  63;  III,  n.  20. 

Kedesh,  97,  n.  3. 

Keipia,  63. 

k7)/c4s,  44,  n.  3. 

kXkvCiv  Trader  (Trdpyvpoi^  41;  31;  III,  II.  8. 

Leaf  motive  on  fulcra,  86. 

Leather,  used  for  pillows,  70. 

Lccticula  lucubriitoria,  15,  n.  5. 


Lectus  aibicularis,  15,  n.  3.  TricUniaris,  15,  n.  3. 

Legs,  109.  Plank  constructions,  47;  plain,  26,  43, 
97;  with  volute  capitals,  26,  44;  with  volute 
capitals  and  incisions,  20  ff.,  44-46,  72,  73; 
derivatives  of  type  with  incisions,  91.  Rudely 
hewn,  26,  42,  43.  Turned,  see  under  Technic. 
Turned  and  carved,  29;  see  also  unfler  Sphinxes. 

Length  of  couches,  15,  n.  5;  16,  n.  5;  37;  38. 

Lesbos,  capital  found  on  island  of,  80. 

Leuconian  blankets,  71. 

Linen,  70,  71. 

Links,  combined  with  volutes  in  ornamental 
designs,  76,  n.  2;  80;  81. 

Lions,  heads  of,  34,  83,  Eig.  50,  102,  103,  107. 
I.egs  of,  supports  of  Egyptian  couches,  97,  n.  4; 
supports  of  Greek  folding  stools,  104.  Supports 
of  chair  of  goddess  Cybele,  95,  n.  2. 

Lora,  63,  109. 

Lycosura,  sculptured  drapery  from,  97. 

M,e.ander,  combined  with  rosettes,  77.  On 
collars  of  horses  and  mules,  85.  On  rails,  23; 
88,  Eig.  46. 

Monads,  heads  of,  87;  Plate  XVI,  loi. 

Making  couches,  conditions  of,  53,  n.  6.  Names 
of  artisans  employed  in,  61. 

VIardonius,  gold  and  silver  couches  of,  51. 

Materials;  bone,  53;  see  also  under  Bone.  Bronze, 
40,  41,  36.  Gold,  40,  41,  36.  Iron,  41,  55.  Ivory, 
40,  53.  55-  Jewels,  36.  Metal,  41,  42.  Silver,  40,  41, 
36.  Tortoise  shell,  40,  33.  Wood,  39;  41,  n. 
3;  55- 

Med.allions,  87;  91,  n.  i;  98;  99;  100;  102;  103; 
107. 

Mergansers,  83,  n.  3. 

IMetapontum,  temple  at,  77. 

Milesian  beds,  34.  Coverings,  71. 

Miletus,  coins  of,  77. 

Mortising,  see  under  Technic  and  Tenons. 

Mules,  heads  of,  83,  84,  83,  100.  Sacred  to  Diony- 
sus, 86,  Eig.  44. 

Munich,  satyr’s  head  in,  99.  Seats  of  marble  in, 
76,  end  of  n.  2. 

Myrina  terra-cottas,  29,  31,  Eig.  30. 

Myrtle,  87,  88. 

Neandreia,  capital  from,  80. 

Nineveh,  ivory  reliefs  from,  80. 

Norcia,  couch  found  at,  32,  56,  37,  107. 

Nut-galls,  used  in  stains,  44,  n.  3. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


123 


OCLADIAS,  104. 

Odysseus,  bed  of,  13,  39,  62. 

Olive,  branches  of,  88,  n.  i. 

Ornament,  Roman,  important  motives,  86;  87;  94, 
n.  I.  Significance  of,  on  conches,  85,  87. 

Painting  of  wood,  49. 

PalmetteS;  81.  Bronze  applique,  61,  tailpiece 
chap.  2.  Furniture  legs,  on,  76;  80,  n.  i;  91,  n.  i. 
Rails,  on,  88,  Fig.  46;  95.  Valance,  figured  on, 
96.  Cj.  also  Figs.  41,  42,  tailpiece  chap.  5. 
Panthers,  heads  of,  ornaments  of  fulcra,  83. 
Skin  of,  worn  by  Roman  riding-horses,  85,  99. 
Small  bronze,  84,  n.  2. 

Paphus,  couch  with  silver  legs  of  youth  of,  41, 
SI- 

irapd-tTV^os,  41,  n.  i;  IO9. 

Parc.  . . . , Gains,  6i,  n.  4. 

Paris,  marble  head  of  a satyr  in  I.ouvre,  99. 
Parthenon,  furniture  kept  in,  16,  n.  4;  40;  54,  n.  3; 

III,  n.  8. 

Peg.asi,  supports  of  a stool,  95,  n.  2. 

Perg.amon,  frieze  of  altar,  107. 

Phigaleia,  frieze  of  temple  at,  89. 

“Phineus  vase,”  22. 

Pillows,  66  ff.;  Fig.  36;  93;  Plates  VI,  VII/), 
XXVIII,  and  XXIX. 

Plank  constructions,  43  ff.,  47,  gi,  97. 

PlaTvEA,  beds  dedicated  at,  16,  n.  4;  41;  51. 
Plating,  see  under  Technic. 

Polishing  wood,  44,  ns.  2 and  3. 

Pompeii,  couches  found  at,  32,  57. 

Priene,  couch  from,  30,  n.  5;  41;  51;  82;  85;  87. 

68,  n.  3;  no. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  golden  couches  used  at 
accession  festivities  of,  41,  51. 

Punic  couches,  60. 

Purple  cloth,  71. 

Rails,  30,  42-45,  95,  109.  Adornment  of,  34,  49, 
88,  loi,  frontispiece;  Figs.  16,  29,  46;  Plates  I, 
VI,  IX,  XIX.  Material  of,  41,  n.  3.  Two  in 
number  paneled  up  at  back,  47,  frontispiece. 
Wide,  analogies  in  chairs,  49;  93,  n.  i. 

“Reliees,  Tomb  of  the,”  76,  n.  2. 

Repousse,  44,  n.  5;  51. 

Rhesus,  slave  of  Caninius,  61,  n.  4. 

Romanus,  61,  n.  4. 

Rosettes,  21;  77;  88,  Fig.  46;  91,  n.  i;  g6.  See 
also  under  Gordion, 


Sarcophagi,  Etruscan,  22;  23;  76,  n.  2;  Figs.  41 
and  43.  Roman,  36,  Fig.  31;  34,  Fig.  17. 

Sardlan  draperies,  71. 

Satyrs,  attending  Dionysus,  107,  Fig. '44.  Heads 
of,  87,  89,  98,  99. 

Sawbills,  83,  n.  3. 

Selinunte,  temple  S at,  77 

Shark  skin,  used  in  finishing  wood-work,  44. 

Shoes  of  bronze,  104,  Fig.  51. 

Silk,  70,  71. 

Skins,  bed-coverings,  71,  no.  Worn  by  horses,  85, 
99,  lOI. 

SOTERICHUS,  61. 

Sparta,  furniture  industry  in,  53. 

o-Traprai,  63,  109. 

a4nyy6iroSetj  51;  109;  112,  n.  27. 

Sphinxes,  a feature  in  the  design  of  couch  legs,  29; 
30;  51,  n.  i;  Figs.  14,  30,  50;  cf.  112,  n.  27.  Sup- 
porting chairs,  95,  n.  2. 

Staining,  44,  n.  3. 

Stool,  folding,  104,  105. 

Stop-gaps,  elimination  of,  78. 

St.  Petersburg,  bed  from  southern  Russia  in,  30, 
41,  50,  82,  87. 

(jTpoyyv'KbTroSe%^  in,  n.  26. 

Swans,  heads  of,  83,  n.  3.  See  also  Birds. 

Tables,  94,  Fig.  48;  104. 

Tanagra,  93,  end  of  n.  i. 

Technic;  a jour  work  in  metal,  44,  n.  5;  in  wood 
and  ivory,  46,  n.  3.  Appliques,  of  ivory,  46,  n.  3; 
of  metal,  44,  n.  5;  of  wood,  46,  n.  3;  47,  n.  i;  cf. 
rail  of  frontispiece.  Carving  in  bone,  104,  107; 
limitations  of,  103,  n.  i;  107.  Carving  in  wood, 
44,  47,  Fig.  43.  Forge  work,  51.  Hollow  casting, 
50;  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  e.xamples  of,  50, 
n.  2.  Inlaying,  with  ivory,  46,  n.  3;  in  bronze 
with  silver  and  copper,  56,  87,  88,  100,  Plates  IX, 
XHI,  XIV,  XVT,  XVII,  XVHI,  XIX.  Metal 
encasing  all  surfaces,  51.  Mortising,  43,  44;  cf. 
Figs.  27  and  26;  see  also  under  Tenons.  Painting 
wood,  49.  Plating  with  precious  metals,  56,  n.  4. 
Polishing  wood,  44,  ns.  2 and  3.  Repousse,  44, 
n.  5;  51.  Staining,  44,  n.  3.  Soldering  together 
of  metal  castings,  50.  Turned  work,  couch  legs, 
20-24,  27-34,  39,  48,  49;  ]iart  of  head-rest,  48; 
imitated  in  metal  castings,  sometimes  retouched 
on  wheel,  50;  51,  n.  i.  Veneering,  with  wood,  41, 
5S;  with  ivory,  46,  n.  3;  52;  55. 

Telepiius  frieze,  31. 


124 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Texons,  round,  Fig.  24.  Rectangular,  lying  verti- 
cally, Fig.  23.  Rectangular,  lying  horizontally, 
Fig.  25.  Showing  prominently,  90,  Plate  I. 
t6tos,  63,  109. 

Topknot,  hair  gathered  into,  loi.  Florse’.s  fore- 
lock arranged  in  a,  Plate  XVI;  loi,  n.  2. 

Torch,  103,  106.  Associated  with  Dionysus,  107. 
Triclinulm,  33,  lOI. 

Tripod,  figured  on  a valance,  96. 

Turned  work,  see  under  Technic. 


Upholstery  ( ?),  36,  37. 

Uses,  16,  17. 

Valances,  68,  96,  97. 

Vatican,  bronze  bed  in,  20;  62,  n. 
Veneering,  see  under  Technic. 
Volutes,  73,  n.  3;  74;  76-81;  91. 


Wool,  70,  71. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  AUTHORS 
REFERRED  TO  IN  TEXT 


i?iLiAN,  Var.  Hist.,  XII,  29 — p.  53. 

Apuleius,  Met.,  X,  34 — p.  55,  n.  6. 

Aristophanes,  I.ysisir.,  916  ff. — p.  112,  n.  42. 
Nub.,  730 — p.  1 12,  n.  41.  Ran.,  342 — p.  71, 
n.  6. 

Arteihdorus,  I,  74 — p.  Ill,  ns.  10,  18. 

Athan^us,  I,  28b  — p.  54,  n.  2.  II,  48a,  b — pp. 
53;  71,  n.  7;  III,  11.  8.  II,  48c— p.  1 12,  n.  38. 
VI,  2sse— pp.  41,  n.  8;  iii,  n.  8;  112,  n.  31.  V, 
197a — p.  112,  n.  27.  V,  197a,  b — p.  41,  n.  9. 
VI,  255e— p.  71,  n.  7.  XI,  486e— p.  54,  n.  2. 

Bion,  I,  67 — p.  41,  n.  9. 

Cato,  De  Agric.,  10,  5 — p.  62,  n.  4. 

Catullus,  64,  48  ff. — p.  71,  n.  4. 

Cicero,  De  Div.,  II,  134 — pp.  13;  62,  n.  4.  Pro 
Mur.,  36,  75 — pp.  60,  n.  4;  71,  n.  2. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  Paedag.,  II,  3,  p.  188 — 
P-  55,  n.  3. 

Critias,  I,  5— p.  54,  n.  2.  Fragm.  i,  1.  5 (p.  31, 
ed.  Bach) — p.  54,  n.  2.  Fragm.  26  (p.  95,  ed. 
Bach) — p.  53,  n.  5.  Fragm.  28  (p.  95,  ed.  Bach) 
— p.  54,  n.  2. 

Demosthenes,  XXVII,  10  ff. — p.  39,  n.  4.  XXVII, 
31— p.  40,  n.  I. 

Digest,  XXXII,  100,  4 — p.  55,  n.  8.  XXXIII,  10, 
3,  3— P-  56,  n.  7.  XXXIII,  10,  9,  I— p.  56,  n.  5. 

Herodotus,  IX,  80-82 — p.  51,  n.  3.  IX,  118 — pp. 
62,  n.  4;  63. 

Hist.  Aug.  Vit.  Elag.,  20,  4 — p.  56,  n.  5. 

Homer — p.  13.  11.,  HI,  391 — p.  39,  n.  2.  Od., 

XIX,  56— p.  39,  n.  3.  Od.,  XXIII,  195-201— p. 
39,  n.  I. 

Horace,  F.p.,  I,  5,  i — p.  61,  n.  3.  Epod.,  3,  22 — 
p.  Ill,  n.  12.  Sat.,  II,  4,  84 — pp.  71,  n.  5;  112, 
n.  44.  Sat.,  II,  6,  103— p.  55,  n.  4. 

Hyginus,  Fab.,  274~p.  83,  n.  7. 

Isidorus,  Orig.,  XX,  ii,  3— p.  59,  n.  4.  XX,  ii, 
5— p.  iiT,  n.  12. 

Juvenal,  XI,  96— p.  83,  n.  7.  XI,  98— p.  56,  n i. 


Livy,  XXXIX,  6— p.  56,  n.  i. 

Lucan,  X,  310,  126 — p.  56,  n.  7. 

Lucian,  /LCh.,  621 — p.  55,  ns.  6,  8. 

Macrobius,  Saturn.,  HI,  13,  ii — p.  55,  n.  4. 

Martial,  III,  91,  10 — p.  iii,  n.  17.  VIII,  33,  6 — 
p.  56,  n.  4.  IX,  22,  6— p.  56,  n.  4.  IX,  59,  9— 
p.  55,  n.  2.  XII,  66,  5— pp.  55,  n.  8;  56,  n.  7. 
XIV,  85— p.  55,  n.  2.  XIV,  159— pp-  71,  n.  8; 
112,  n.  39. 

Ovid,  Ep.  ex  Ponto,  HI,  3,  14 — p.  55,  n.  i.  Met., 
VIII,  656 — p.  Ill,  n.  12.  Met.,  VIII,  656-59 
— pp.  55,  n.  i;  III,  n.  9.  Trist.,  I,  ii,  37— p.  15, 
n.  5. 

Persius,  I,  52— p.  15,  n.  5.  I,  52,  53— p.  55,  n.  2. 
I,  io6~p.  IS,  n.  5. 

Petronius,  97 — pp.  62,  n.  4;  65;  iii,  n.  12. 

Plato,  Prot.,  3is<^ — p.  71,  n.  2.  Republ.  X,  $g6b — 
S97&— P-  53- 

Pl.ato  (comic  poet),  quoted  in  Athen.,  II,  48a,  b — 
P-  53- 

Plautus,  Stick.,  378 — p.  71,  n.  10. 

Pliny,  Ep.,  V,  5,  5 — p.  15,  n.  5.  A^.  H.,  VIII,  196 

— p.  71,  n.  12.  N.  II . IX,  39 — p.  55,  n.  5.  N. 
H.  IX,  137— p.  71,  n.  II.  N.  H.,  XXXIII,  144 
— pp.  54,  n.  6;  55,  n.  5;  56,  n.  2.  N.  H.,  XXXIII, 
146 — p.  56,  n.  3.  N'.  II.,  XXXIV,  2,  9 — p.  41, 
n.  2.  N.  H.,  XXXIV,  14— p.  56,  n.  i. 

Plutarch,  Lycurg.,  9 — p.  53,  n.  5. 

Pollux — p.  13.  VI,  9 — p.  iii,  ns.  7,  ii,  13.  VI, 
10-— pp.  no,  n.  3;  112,  ns.  33,  34,  38.  VII,  160 
— p.  no,  n.  3.  X,  34— p.  in,  ns.  8,  13.  X,  35 
— pp.  40,  n.  6;  no,  n.  6.  X,  36 — pp,  62,  n.  4; 
III,  ns.  21,  24.  X,  38 — p.  112,  n.  32.  X,  41 — ■ 
pp.  70,  n.  4;  112,  n.  29.  X,  42 — p.  112,  ns.  33, 
37-  N 43— P-  ”2,  ns.  42,  43.  X,  64— p.  63. 

Propertius,  II,  13,  22 — p.  71,  n.  12.  IV,  5,  24 — 
p.  71,  n.  12.  IV,  8,  68 — p.  Ill,  n.  17. 

Seneca,  Ep.,  17,  12 — p.  55,  n.  i.  Ep.,  72,  2 — p. 
IS,  n.  5.  Ep.,  87.  2^p.  112,  ns.  36,  40.  Ep., 
no,  12 — p.  56,  n.  7.  Fragm.,  114  -p.  61,  n.  3. 


125 


126 


PASSAGES  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  AUTHORS 


Strabo,  X\^,  693 — p.  71. 

Sitetonius,  Aug.,  78 — p.  15,  n.  5.  Calig.,  26 — 
p.  Ill,  n.  17.  Calig.,  32— p.  56,  n.  3.  Ini,  84— 
P-  55.  n.  4- 

SuiDAS, — p.  13.  5.  VV.  KHpla  and  rbvoi — p.  63.  J.  V. 

&(TKaPTOS — p.  no,  n.  4. 

Terence,  Ad.,  585 — p.  in,  n.  9. 

Theocritus,  XXIV,  43 — p.  39. 

Theophrastus, — p.  39.  H.  P.,  IV,  8,  4 — p.  112, 
n.  42. 


Thucydides,  III,  68,  3 — p.  41,  n.  2.  IV,  48,  3 — 
p.  62,  n.  4. 

Tim^us,  quoted  in  Aelian,  Var.  Hist.,  XII,  29 — 
P-  53- 

Varro, — p.  13.  L.  L.,  V,  167 — p.  112,  n.  35.  L. 

L.,  VIII,  31,  32— p.  60,  n.  I. 

Virgil,  Cir.,  440 — pp.  61,  n.  2;  71,  n.  9. 


Xenophon,  Anab.,  VII,  5,  14 — p.  54. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES^ 


Athens:  Acropolis  Musenm,  terra-cotta  plaques, 
23,  Fig.  6;  27,  n.  2;  49;  68.  Central  Museum, 
terra-cotta,  52,  Fig.  30;  29;  51;  69;  75,  n.  5;  112, 
n.  27. — Vase,  Boeotian,  detail  from,  66,  head- 
piece,  chap.  4;  69. — Vase,  Melian,  detail  from, 
89,  tailpiece,  chap.  5;  78. 

Berlin:  Antiquariuni,  duck’s  head,  100. — Lead, 
relief  in,  108. — Palmette-ornament,  61,  tailpiece 
chap.  2;  44,  n.  5;  81,  n.  2;  93,  n.  2. — Terra- 
cotta, 98. — Vase,  detail  from  red-figured,  43, 
Fig.  26;  26;  68.  Egyptian  Department,  iaience, 
fragment  of,  30,  Fig.  13;  68,  n.  3;  69;  97,  n.  2. 
— Wooden  couch,  rail  of,  65,  Figs.  32,  33;  64; 
97,  n.  2. — Terra-cotta,  108.  Pergamon  Museum, 
fragments  of  marble  couch,  93  £f. 

Cervetri  (Caere),  cinerary  urn  from,  90. 

Chicago,  Field  Columbian  Museum,  bed  of  bone, 
102  ff. 

Cologne,  W allraj -Richartz  Museum,  tiny  bronze 
chair  found  in  Cologne,  71,  tailpiece  chap.  4; 
15,  n.  2;  47,  n.  2;  76,  end  of  n.  2;  91,  n.  i. 

Constantinople,  sarcophagus  from  Syria,  59, 
Fig.  31;  cf.  Plate  XXVII;  34;  36;  89,  108. 

Corneto-Tarquinia,  vase,  detail  from  red-figured, 
26,  Fig.  9;  44,  n.  i;  68. — Wall-painting  in  a tomb, 
detail  from,  25,  Fig.  8;  23;  24;  43;  49;  67. 

Egypt,  objects  from,  see  Berlin,  Egyptian  Depart- 
ment. 

Florence,  Archceological  Museum,  vase,  detail 
from  red-figured,  42,  Fig.  24;  26. 

Hanover,  Kestner  Museum,  shoe  of  bronze,  105, 
Fig.  51;  104. — Terra-cotta  handle  ( ?),  86,  Fig.  45. 

Jallieux,  parts  of  a couch  found  at,  loi. 

Karlsruhe,  vase,  detail  from  red-figured,  78, 
Fig.  42;  76,  n.  2. 

London,  British  Museum:  Assyrian  furniture,  74, 
I’ig-  39;  41,  n.  3;  73.— “Bisellium,”  98.— 
Bronzes  (various  attachments  of  couches),  99  ff. 


— Cinerary  urn,  90;  detail  from  another,  24,  Fig. 
7;  23;  24;  27,  n.  2;  49. — Sarcophagus,  Etruscan, 
view  of  end  of,  78,  Fig.  41;  22;  76,  n.  2;  detail 
from  design  on  back  of,  38,  tailpiece  chap,  i;  22. 
— Terra-cotta,  108, — Vase,  black-figured  on  white 
ground,  detail  of,  19,  headpiece  chap,  i;  26;  91. 
— Vases,  red-figured,  details  from,  40,  Fig.  22; 
26;  39;  68.-43,  Fig.  25;  26;  44;  47;  49;  97.-48, 
Fig.  28;  20,  n.  2;  27;  68;  72. 

Lyons,  bronze  parts  of  a couch  in,  loi. 

Macedonia,  couch  found  in  tomb  at  Pydna,  see 
under  Paris. 

Madrid,  vase,  detail  from  red-figured,  27,  Fig.  ii; 
81 ; III,  n.  24. 

Munich:  Glyptothek,  seats  of  marble,  details 
from  91,  Fig.  47;  119.  Antiquarium,  vase, 

detail  from  black-figured,  45,  Fig.  27;  cf.  Plate  II; 
22;  44;  46;  47;  49;  76,  n.  2. 

Naples,  vases,  details  from  red-figured,  49,  Fig.  29; 
37;  68.-69,  Fig.  37;  17,  n.  i;  29;  68.— 106,  Fig. 
52;  104;  105. 

Orvieto,  couch  of  bone  from,  102  ff. 

Palermo,  cinerary  urn  in,  detail  of,  104,  Fig.  50; 

30;  75-  n.  5;  82;  83;  112,  n.  27. 

Paris,  Louvre:  marble  couch  from  Pydna  in  Mace- 
donia, 29,  Fig.  12;  28;  80,  n.  i;  in,  n.  24. — 
Mules’  heads,  loi. — Terra-cotta,  90  ff. — Vase, 
Dipylon,  detail  from,  20,  P'ig.  i;  66.  Vases, 
Corinthian,  details  from,  21,  Fig.  2;  20;  49;  67. 
—22,  Fig.  4;  21;  23,  n.  I,  37;  45;  67;  80,  n.  i. 
—67,  Fig.  35;  21;  73,  n-  3- 
Paros,  Roman  gravestones  on  the  island  of,  36, 
Fig.  18  and  76,  Fig.  40;  35;  38;  75;  in,  n.  18. 
Pergamon,  fragments  of  a marble  couch  found  at, 
93  ff- 

Pompeii,  duck’s  head  found  at,  100. — Marble  table 
in  “House  of  Meleager”  in,  95,  Fig.  48;  94. 
Pydna,  couch  found  in  tomb  at,  see  under  Paris. 


' Find  spots  (so  far  as  known)  and  jjrescnl  situations  of  objects  pictured  in  tliis  book.  Other  ini[)ortant 
objects  referred  to  under  the  names  of  i)laces  are  included  in  the  general  indc.x. 


127 


128 


INDEX  OF  PLACES 


Rome:  Museo  Kircheriivw,  cinerary  urn,  31, 
Fig.  14;  16,  n.  3;  30;  34;  38;  75,  n.  5;  82;  112, 
n.  27.  Masco  di  Papa  Giiilio,  sarcophagus,  79, 
Fig.  43;  23;  44;  45;  76,  n.  2;  80.  Masco  Torlonio, 
sarcophagus,  cover  of,  34;  35,  Fig.  17;  69. 

St.  Petersburg,  vase,  detail  from  red-figured,  82, 
Fig.  44;  27;  50,  n.  2;  68;  75;  81;  83,  n.  8;  86. 

Syria,  sarcophagus  from,  see  under  Constantinople. 


Vathia,  couch  in  tomb  at,  70,  Fig.  38;  28;  69;  75; 
81 ; 94;  III,  n.  26. 

Vienna,  bronze  upright  of  an  end-rest,  loi. 
Vienne,  bronze  mules’  heads  found  at,  loi. 

Wurzburg,  vase,  detail  from  red-figured,  22,  Fig.  5; 

23;  24;  49;  67- 


V 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  I 


ETRUSCAN  TERRA-COTTA  CINERARY  VKN.— British  Museum. 


STUDIES  /.V  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  II 


RELIEFS  ON  TERRA-COTTA  MODEL  OF  A COXJCB..— Louvre. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  IV 


FRAdMKNT  OF  ANCIRNT  MARBLR  RKl’RODUCTION  OF  A COLK'II.  FRONT-VIKW 
SII(-)\VIN(i  VALANCR. — Pcrgamon  Museum,  Berlin. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  V 


FRAGMENT  OF  ANCIENT  MARBLE  REPRODUCTION  OF  A COUCH.  TOP-VIEW  SHOWING 

INTERLACING. — Pergamon  Museum,  Berlin. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  VI 


FRAGMENT  OF  ANCIENT  MARBLE  REPRODUCTION  OF  A COUCH— Perga mon  Museum,  Berlin. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  VII 


a 


b 


TWO  SMALL  TERRA-COTTAS— 


' .',?'■?*'■  «"'!■»- 


■*fc  ’ 


•*  y ' i. 

' - ;:v  -■ 

i - ' i 


- ’. ..  '*  •-■'  . 

^ . "Ci  .r/fjijiV 

•4Ai;£r\'*'  *AUfSreJ  • ^»  irf.**  >*'  .^4T7«i 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  VIII 


PARTS  OF  COUCH  RESTORED  AS  A SEAT  .—British  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  IX 


BRONZE  ATTACHMENTS  OF  COUCH  RESTORED  AS  A SY.AT.— British  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  X 


BRONZE  ATTACHMENTS  OF  COUCH  RESTORED  AS  A SEAT.— British  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XI 


UPRIGHTS  OP  FULCRUM  OF  A COUCH.— ZIr;7«//  Museum. 


Sl'UDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XII 


UPRIGHTS  OF  FULCRA  OF  COUCHES.— Musciuii. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XIII 


UPPER  CORNER-ORNAMENT  OF  FULCRUM  OF  A COUCH.— Brilish  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XIV 


Uri’KR  CORNER-ORNAMENTS  OE  FULCRA  OF  COVCllKS.—Brilisli  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  EURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XV 


A B UPPKR  CORNKR-ORNAMKNTS  OF  FULCRA  OF  COUCHES— 

C D ORNAMENTS  OF  FULCRA  OF  COUCUKS— British  Museum. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XVI 


UPRIGHT  OF  FULCRUM  OF  A COUCH.— 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XVII 


UPPER  FRONT  CORNER-ORNAMENTS  OF  EUI.CRA  OF  A COUCU— Louvre. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XVIII 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XIX 


PLATE  XX 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXI 


FUNERARY  COUCH.  BONE  ORNAMENT  FROM  LOWER!  CORNER  OF  A FULCRUM.— E/cW 

Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXII 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXIII 


FUNKRARY  COUCH.  HEAD  OF  LION  CARVED  IN  liOSiK.— Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXIV 


I'UNI'.RARY  Cf^UCII.  FIGURICS  CARVGil)  IN  HONlv  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXV 


FUNERARY  COUCH.  FIGURES  CARVED  IN  liONE.— F/cW  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXVI 


1/  ^ T' 


rUNKRARY  COUCH.  IIF.AD  OF  LION  CARVKl)  IN  RONE.— F/e/d  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXVII 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXVIII 


RELIEF  IN  LEAD.  PROBABLY  FROM  END-PIECE  OF  A COFFIN.— Be;-//;;. 


STUDIES  IN  ANCIENT  FURNITURE,  I 


PLATE  XXIX 


a 


a.  SMALI.  TKRRA-COTTA.— 
h.  SMALL  Tl'-RRA-COTTA. — British  Museum. 


V.  ts 


1 


iis 


aiiiiii 


